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Abstract
After scrutiny the problem of time in Persian verbs, the writers of present essay proceed to revise the usage of auxiliary and modal verbs and by putting forward and criticizing the paroles of writers of Grammar about this subject, reject the difference of these two verbs and expressing the similarities of them in language and showing that modal and auxiliary verbs have the same usage; Then by presenting the verb 'willing' as auxiliary (but not modal) verb in verbs like "would to go" and "was going to go" and etc. putting forward the existence of the time of "future in the past" in Persian language and compering it with some time with the same name in English language. The writers believe that the time "future in the past" is not only a time but in combination with other times it can create some new times in it's subset.

 

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In historical studies, period is a regulative concept. It helps historians of arts and sciences classify historical information. In most literary histories, periodization is the most essential basis of division. Periodization also was applied in literary studies like rhetorics. For example, Shawqi Zaif has divided the history of Islamic-Arabic rhetorics into periods. In this article, we are to propose a schema for periodization of history of Persian rhetorics. System of Persian rhetorics was originally derived from Arabic rhetorics but the quality and quantity of adaptation in different periods wasn’t the same. In some cases, Persian rhetoricians came up with important innovations in periodization and sometimes they made use of rhetorics of the other civilizations for instance Indian rhetorics in order to study aesthetical aspects of Persian literature. Base on the historical era they were living in and the similarities of their approaches, we can distinguish four different periods: 1. Localization Period: This period, as the first period of Persian rhetorics, includes the most important books of Persian rhetorics: Tarjoman al-balaqa, Hadaeq al-sehr, and Al-mo’jam fi ma’air ash’ar al-ajam; 2. Interpretation and Imitation Period: Most of rhetoric books in this period are interpretations of previous period; 3. Pseudo- Indian Period: In this period, a few rhetoricians try to apply Indian rhetorics to Persian literature; 4. Scholastic Period: The last period is a contemporary one and includes new rhetorical textbooks.

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Literary period functions as a regulative idea for literary critics in the narrative of literary history. Literary period is a time-section; although in literary history and criticism, it has also other implications and associative meanings. Some of these secondary meanings which can be called components of literary period are: zeitgeist, the conditions of literary production, dominant norms, change and evolution, binary oppositions, individual or collective idealistic narrative, and concept of spatiality. Zeitgeist and the conditions of literary period offer theories about factors extrinsic to literature that manage establishment and change of general and literary periods. The concept of period as time-section ruled by a series of literary norms ascribes some kind of internal unity to literary periods. Periodization based upon organic idea of evolution compares every period with one of the life’s stages of an organism. Some critics understand literary period in terms of binary oppositions such as classic and modern. Others give literary period a spatial aspect. However, literary history is a result of individual or collective idealistic narrative. It is not a concept but an idea. It is not related to knowledge but to thinking.

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Criticizing and Rethinking of Periodization in Literary History Abstract In historical and literary studies, periodization is a regulative idea for classifying the literary and historical information in diachronic axis but its application in literary history has been subject to some critiques. This article is to study the critical debates about periodization in literary history and the rethinking of the concept. We can divide these critical debates in two groups: some critics call the very notion into question and refer to as invalid concept. Instead, others engage in rethinking and revising the concept for appropriate application in literary history. Imposition of a static framework on cultural and literary dynamics, averaging effect and contrast with uniqueness of literary works, combining histories of different literary genres, lack of conformity with reality, artificial homogeneity and consistency of change and evolution schemas, problems of terminology and descriptive, anachronism, lost years and centuries, ignoring the distance between literary production and literary reading, logical sequence, ignoring ethnic and gender groups and dominance of period concepts on critical thought are some critiques against periodization and its application in literary history. Rethinking of periodization, being based upon new historical and literary findings and sometimes focusing on redefinition of temporal limits of periods, is current in different frameworks: feminist approaches, according to ethnic and gender groups, and redefinition of literary periods based on new critical concepts. Keywords: literary history, theory of literary history, periodization, literary criticism, literary theory.

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Standardization of Language has two general forms: Sometimes a language comes to be standard language and maintains its standard status without direct and conscious involvement, influenced by various linguistic, cultural, social and political factors, and sometimes this process is fulfilled with some kind of planning and previous preparation. Usually these two forms of standardization are at work simultaneously. These forms, therefore, can be seen as different modes of standardization not types of it.
In this paper, we attempt to explain various aspects of planned standardization of Persian in contemporary period, comparing the standardization of Persian in pre and post Constitution periods. The main objective is to clarify conscious aspects of the standardization of Persian language in contemporary period in light of comparative study of pre and post Constitution periods, and to provide the ground for criticizing planning for standardization of Persian language in contemporary period. The comparison of these two periods is accompanied with an overview of the historical, social and cultural background, and is based on Haugen’s theory of language standardization and language planning phases.
The standardization of Persian language in pre-Mashrute period, although sometimes has planned aspects, and some related activities accompany with linguistic, social and cultural insights, in general is considered natural standardization; therefore the process is not ruled by planned mode of standardization.
Post Constitution period is the period of planned standardization; although some planned activities were failed, and some natural processes maintain Persian language in standard status.
This paper has adopted a macro view and is based upon the theories of sociolinguistics and sociology of language.
 
 

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Preparing and compiling a comprehensive educational curriculum is closely related to the writing of textbooks. Following educational goals, the periodization of Persian literary history can provide a theoretical framework for Persian language training programs for non-natives. In this paper, we argue over a particular approach to this periodization. The periodization is based on the reverse historical order, literary genre, literary form, and figures. These criteria are moving in reverse historical arrangements from the contemporary period to the past and narrating the variety of literary forms and genres around prominent poets and writers of each period. To evaluate the function and the validity of this approach, the produced content (the book: The Living Tree) was taught to two groups of non-native students of the Persian language (intermediate and upper-intermediate levels) and the results of a survey on their learning were analyzed. The analysis showed that both levels are satisfied with the resulting educational content.


Preparing and compiling a comprehensive educational curriculum is closely related to the writing of textbooks. In the educational curriculum of the field of teaching Persian to non-Persian speakers, teaching literature has a fundamental importance. Many students start learning Persian because of their interest in Persian literature. On the other hand, the literary variety of the Persian language is considered the most prestigious variety of the Persian language, and the Persian standard language has also been greatly influenced by the literary variety.
 Teaching Persian literature to non-Persian speakers requires paying attention to the history of Persian literature and presenting educational content in an appropriate kind of historical order. On the other hand, the periodization of Persian literary history, following educational goals, can provide a theoretical framework for Persian language learning programs for non-natives. In this paper, we argue over a particular approach to this periodization; in such a way as to satisfy the language learners and facilitate the learning of educational content. In any given scheme, the level of language skills of the learners should be taken into account and a perspective should be drawn for them to get acquainted with the history, development, and evolution of Persian literature. Every new scheme needs a detailed and comprehensive evaluation to measure its effectiveness in terms of goals and educational content.
The purpose is to provide a new plan for teaching Persian literature to non-Persian speakers, taking into consideration the level of Persian language knowledge of learners and Persian literature courses, and the validity and reliability of this plan were tested by applying it in a group of non-Persian speakers. Before adding the proposed plan and concept to the educational curriculum, it is necessary to evaluate its effectiveness in teaching Persian literature to determine its sufficiency in teaching educational content and to evaluate the level of satisfaction of language learners with such a concept. The latter is important because Persian literature is the main reason and motivation for learning Persian language.
In this article, we have designed and proposed a special type of periodization that has the following criteria and features, taking into account the mentioned cases among the different approaches and methods of periodization of the history of literature.
1. This periodization is based on reverse historical order; That is, contrary to the conventional histories of literature, the educational content starts from the contemporary period and proceeds in the reverse order to earlier periods. The reason for adopting this historical order is the simplicity of the contemporary literary language and its proximity to the standard Persian language. The literary language of previous literary periods becomes more difficult for language learners as we move further away from the contemporary period.
2. Literary genres: In this periodization, literary genres are distinguished from each other and each literary genre has its periods that can be different from other literary genres.
3. Literary form: In addition to literary genres, Persian literature includes various literary forms, each of which has its language. Therefore, it was necessary to consider this variable in the aforementioned periodization.
4. Prominent literary figures: Each period of Persian literature, its literary genres, and literary forms are associated with the great poets and writers. Dealing with these prominent men of letters can suggest outstanding examples of Persian literature in each period, genre and literary form to be included in the educational content, and introduce learners to the great poets and writers of Persian literature.
​To evaluate the effectiveness and the validity of this approach, the produced content (the book: The Living Tree) was taught to two groups of non-native students of the Persian language (intermediate and upper-intermediate levels). First, the progress of language learners was evaluated based on the scores obtained, and then the learners were surveyed about the effectiveness of the proposed scheme and their level of satisfaction, and at the end, we analyzed the results of both sections. The analysis shows:
1. Language learners who learn Persian literature with this method and periodization have more progress in learning Persian literature than other language learners.
2. At both intermediate and upper intermediate levels, the overwhelming majority of language learners are highly and very highly satisfied with the teaching of this content.
 

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The use of linguistic theories in the discourse analysis of literary works can reveal new aspects of these works. This paper seeks to analyze the "contents" of Golestan Sa'adi on the basis of the Searl's Theory of Speech Acts to find some linguistic reasons to prove the effectiveness of these themes using the statistical method and content analysis.For the analysis, the themes of the fifth and seventh chapters were first extracted, and then the type of the semantic roles, vocabulary (action verbs), the form, the structure of the sentence and its context were examined in the domain covered by each theme; in this way, the direct speech acts of the statements are recognized from the indirect speech acts. The data analysis was done based on the Searl's theory of speech acts. On the one hand, the interaction between the speech acts and the linguistic and semantic features as well as the context of each theme was investigated, and on the other hand, the manner of Saadi's speech delivery was examined on the appropriate use of speech acts in the educational genre in accordance with the subject of the speech (here the two chapters of Golestan with two different themes).
Based on the findings of the study, as far as the indirect speech acts (the speech acts inferred from the function of the context) are concerned, in the seventh chapter, the persuasive, expressive, and affective speech acts had the highest use in the language propositions, respectively. Given the didactic nature of this book, this result was predictable. In the fifth chapter of the Golestan, the most language roles used in the linguistic propositions are expressive, affective, and persuasive, respectively; and the frequency of speech acts does not change in the case of excluding the indirect persuasive speech acts. Given the title and subject of this chapter (love and youth), it is natural that the frequency of functions is more related to the affective and expressive speech acts. The indirect speech acts of this chapter are also more of the affective one than persuasive.
 
 

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   the authors of this article have tried to Content analysis (analytical-descriptive approach) and with a critical approach, to carefully examine Khaghani's poetic capacities from the perspective of political rhetoric and with emphasis on soft power theory (as the second aspect of power versus hard power) and from This will explain the role and function of culture and language in the field of power equations. Accordingly, Khaghani's clever use of some rhetorical techniques and methods, such as "message massage", "tagging", "humor", "symbolic violence", "exaggeration and exaggeration", "removal", "repetition and Emphasis, as much as it is on the more difficult and perhaps more powerful aspect of power, reveals its function in interacting with the institution of power