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In the Persian language, which follows the SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order, the interrogative complement or prepositional object usually appears after the object in the focal position. However, it is possible to move this phrase to other positions within the sentence. The aim of this study is to investigate the processing of interrogative complement displacement in Persian using Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) based on Friederici's syntactic processing model. This study focuses on the central-parietal region of the brain, specifically the N400 and P600 components, which, according to Friederici's language processing model (1995), examine the filler-gap dependency structure and the mental representation of these phrases. Four different positions of the interrogative complement in Persian were examined, and 50 sentences were constructed for each condition.. The results indicate that the displacement of the interrogative complement leads to different brain responses, with an increase in N400 amplitude in the central-parietal region when the interrogative complement follows the subject, and an increase in P600 amplitude in the initial or focal position of the interrogative complement. These findings suggest that the displacement of the wh-complement in Persian, according to Friederici's model, has a neurophysiological basis and may represent a filler-gap dependency structure in mental representation.

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Given the significant role of conceptual metaphors in understanding abstract concepts in the children’s development, the present study was conducted for designing and standardization a test of embodied conceptual metaphors in the Persian language. The test administrations will allow us to investigate the process of understanding abstract concepts in normal five-to-seven-year-old children. In the present study, 171 embodied conceptual metaphors were extracted from the Persian dictionaries. The metaphors were related to four sensory-motor organs i.e. ears, eyes, hands, and legs. The researchers attempted to investigate the understanding of abstract concepts by using conceptual metaphors in 30 five-to-seven-year-old children having a normal development. 39 metaphors having more than 30% of correct answers were selected. In the next phase, a test was designed that was composed of two parts (audio and visual) based on these 39 metaphors; the understanding of abstract concepts were investigated in 200 five-to-seven Persian speakers. Based on the mean score acquired from both age groups, given the development process of abstract concepts, it was indicated that in comparison to five-to-six-year-old children, six-to-seven-year-old children showed a better performance for understanding abstract concepts; the difference was significant. Moreover, the findings of the present study indicated that in comparison to the visual test, children had a better performance in responding to the audio test. Moreover, the boys and girls were not significantly different regarding understanding abstract concepts. The findings of the present study can be applied in rehabilitating and treating the disorders related to the understanding of abstract concepts.
 

1.  Introduction

Metaphor is the understanding of a conceptual domain in the form of another conceptual domain. The conceptual domain from which we derive metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called the source domain, and the conceptual domain that is understood in this way is called the target domain.
The main purpose of this study is to design and standardize a test of embodied conceptual metaphors in Persian to examine the process of understanding the embodied abstract concepts of the four sensory-motor organs, eyes, ears, hands and feet in healthy children aged 5 to 7 years. Providing such a test is essential in diagnosing any impairments in the process of understanding metaphorical concepts in a variety of developmental speech and language disorders, including autism and hearing loss, as well as cognitive rehabilitation.
 

2.  Research Hypotheses

Children aged 6 to 7 have a better understanding of embodied metaphors than Persian-speaking children aged 5 to 6.
There is no significant difference between 5 to 7 years old boys and girls in understanding the embodied metaphors.
Children perform better on the visual test than on the auditory test.
 

3.  Literature Review

Christopher Johnson (1999) in his doctoral dissertation has studied metaphor learning in children. He suggested 3 steps for learning metaphor in children. In the first stage, the child learns only the source domain. In the second stage, the child is confronted with experiences in which both the source and target domains are simultaneously activated. In this stage, the child learns to apply the source domain in accordance with the meaning of the target domain. In the third stage, the child uses the words metaphorically, while there is no trace of the source domain.
In her dissertation, Georgiona (2007) examines the understanding of metaphor in preschool children and concludes that 5-year-olds have a better understanding of metaphors than 3-year-olds.
Bialika-Pikal (2003) examined the understanding of embodied metaphors in preschool children based on five indicators including color, shape, movement, size and touch and concluded that motor metaphors in children are learned faster. Color metaphors are learned in the second place, however, size metaphors are the most difficult metaphors for children. In another study on 120 children aged 3.3 to 5.9, he reported that children's ability to perceive and understand metaphors changes with age. 5-year-olds understood more metaphors in this study.
Ranginkaman (2007) in his doctoral dissertation studied metaphor understanding in 10 Persian children, aged 4, 5 and 6 years old and concluded that children's ability to understand metaphors increases with age. He also reported that children first learn simpler and more tangible metaphors and then more abstract and complex metaphors.
In their research, Shoja Razavi et al. (2016) examined 60 Persian-speaking children aged 2 to 5 years. They used the Bialka-Pikal test in their research. The findings of this study show that children at the age of 2 years have some understanding of embodied metaphors.
As observed in the previous studies, there is no an standardized test to examine the understanding of embodied metaphors in Persian, and previous researchers have inevitably used tests in other languages. The present study attempts to fill the gap.
 
 

4.  Methodology

The research was conducted in two phases: The first part involves creating the metaphors that are best understood by children ages 5 to 7. The second part involved conducting a test for understanding metaphors and examining its validity and reliability.
 
4-1 Part One
First, 171 embodied metaphors related to 4 body  morgans (hands, feet, ears, eyes) were extracted from various texts such as: Folk Persian Culture (Najafi, 1999), other Persian books, and 30 children aged 5 to 7 Persian language were asked to express his / her interpretation of each metaphor. Finally, 39 embodied conceptual metaphors, with a frequency above 30%, were selected to be used in the construction of the test.
Part II
In the second part of the research, the 39 selected metaphors were used to construct a test for understanding metaphors. The test consisted of two parts: auditory and visual. In each section, 20 metaphors (5 metaphors related to each body organ) were used and 10 questions were added as fillers to prevent the subject from guessing the test process.
In the visual section, for each metaphor, 3 binary sets were depicted. One image represented the abstract concept of metaphor, one image was related to the literal understanding of metaphor, and one image was unrelated to metaphor.
In the auditory section, a short story was designed in which the metaphors were used. The participant was then presented three options. The subject had to choose the most appropriate option. Of the three options in each question, one option expressed the abstract meaning of the metaphor, one option expressed the literal meaning of the metaphor, and one option was completely unrelated to the metaphor.
The designed test was finally performed on 200 Persian-speaking children aged 5 to 7 years, and the subject's responses were recorded.
 

5.  Results

Findings from the present study show that age range has an effect on participants’ performance and subjects aged 6 to 7 years had significantly higher scores than subjects aged 5 to 6 years. Also, gender had no any significant effects on the test score.
However, the modularity of test has an effect on test scores and due to the higher average and total scores of the auditory test, it can be stated that participants outperformed in the auditory test compared to the visual test. This is true about participants in both age groups.
 

6. Discussion

We compared the performances of the two age groups of participants in the test, and after the elimination of the filler questions, the average score of the age group 5 to 6 years was 22.68. However, in the age group of 6 to 7 years, the average score was 26.34. The results indicates that the subjects of 6 to 7 years outperformed in the test. The results confirm the first hypothesis of the study that Persian-speaking 6- to 7-year-old children have a better understanding of embodied metaphors than 5- to 6-year-old children. Moreover, we did not find significant differences between boys and girls. In other words, female subjects did not perform better than male subjects. Accordingly, the second hypothesis of the research is confirmed.
The results also revealed that subjects obtained better scores in the auditory test than the visual test, which is in contradiction with the third hypothesis of the research, and accordingly, the third hypothesis of the research is rejected. What can be deduced from this research finding is that children understand metaphorical concepts much better when it is presented auditory. The reason for this difference seems to be that because abstract concepts are not visible on their own, people understand abstract concepts by hearing and communicating between the source domain of the metaphor and its target domain.
 

7.  Conclusion

The results of the present study show that children gain a better understanding of metaphorical concepts with age. Consistent with Johnson's theory, we found that children’s literal interpretations of the metaphorical concepts are decreased with age and abstract perceptions of the metaphorical concepts increases, instead.
In the present study, in addition to constructing a test for understanding metaphors, the mean score in the two age groups was determined so that it can be used in rehabilitation and diagnosis of the disorder. Based on the average score, the impaired perception of abstract concepts can be diagnosed in people with obvious disorders such as hearing loss, autism, or even in children with suspected language and metalinguistic disorders.

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This article investigates the role of Conceptual Metaphors of 3 behavioral economics biases, including Irrational Evaluation, Labeling, and Replacing market values with social values on Willingness to Pay (WTP) and Willingness to Accept (WTA) of Participants. To extract experimental, conceptual metaphors, the results of field studies were checked on a group of 30 participants in the first phase. In the second phase, we used the semi-pilot method on 30 other participants through 2 stages for investigating conceptual metaphors. Analysis of variances showed that that the conceptual metaphors used in this article do not influence Willingness to Pay and Willingness to Sell. However, in Willingness to Pay status, among other biases, the impact of irrational evaluations conceptual metaphors has stronger effects, whereas, in Willingness to Accept status, replacing market values with social values is stronger than other biases. The results of this research showed that three mentioned behavioral principles that were implemented through conceptual metaphors, couldn't influence buying or selling decisions of participants significantly, but the efficacy of these behavioral principles were different in buying and selling decisions.
1. Introduction
Cognitive linguistics is a new school of linguistics that emerged in the early 1970s due to objections to formal linguistic approaches in Chomsky's views. Cognitive linguistics, like other types of linguistics, studies language and tries to describe the systematics, structure, and function of the language system. One of the most fundamental concepts in cognitive linguistics goes back to conceptual metaphor. Conceptual metaphors mean recognizing one domain through the characteristics of another domain. A simple definition of conceptual metaphor is that "conceptual domain A is conceptual domain B". The conceptual domain itself is any coherent organization of experiences. In this regard, one of the interdisciplinary approaches that has received much attention today is the focus on cognitive linguistics through conceptual metaphors in other areas. It seems that by using conceptual metaphors and examining their effect on perception, judgment and reasoning of individuals, a deeper understanding of cognitive processes can be achieved.
Accordingly, and according to previous research that shows that conceptual metaphors can subconsciously affect the way of thinking of people in various fields, in this study, the role of conceptual metaphors in the background of behavioral economics was investigated. The reason for choosing behavioral economics over neoclassical economics is the objections to the two main pillars of neoclassical economics, "The emphasis on individual rationality and General equilibrium". Individual rationality means that in neoclassical economics it is assumed that people do not include emotions in their decisions, while behavioral economics is based on anthropological studies with psychological methods based on the inclusion of emotions in economic decisions.
 This article examines the effect of conceptual metaphors on the rules of behavioral economics. For this purpose, with reference to cognitive linguistics, we introduce some rules of behavioral economics in the form of conceptual metaphor theory and then in a quasi-laboratory study, we examine the effectiveness of presenting behavioral economics rules through conceptual metaphors in statistical form. In the first phase of the research, we select conceptual metaphors related to the three behavioral rules of irrational valuation, labeling and replacing market values ​​with social values. Then, in the form of the fourth hypothesis, we examine the effect of the relevant conceptual metaphors on the willingness to pay and the willingness to Accept as two factors representing economic decisions.
Research Hypothesis instead of questions
 (s)
Hypothesis 1: Conceptual metaphors related to the best examples of goods in this paper affect the implementation of the behavioral rule of irrational valuation.
Hypothesis 2: Conceptual metaphors related to femininity labeling used in this article, affect the implementation of the labeling rule.
Hypothesis 3: Conceptual metaphors related to social values ​​used in this paper, affect the implementation of the rule of replacing market values ​​with social values.
Hypothesis 4: The use of conceptual metaphors in implementing the rules of behavioral economics considered in this paper (irrational valuation, labeling and substitution of market values ​​with social values) affects the willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to receive (WTA) of the test subjects.
 
2. Literature Review
The main reason for studying cognitive linguistics is the assumption that language expresses patterns of thinking. Therefore, the study of language from this perspective is the study of conceptualization patterns. In this approach, language is a window to cognitive function and through language, the nature, structure and organization of thinking and mental ideas of individuals can be studied (Evans, Green, 2006). In cognitive linguistics, language is a tool for organizing, processing and transmitting information (Dehghan et al., 1399). One of the most fundamental concepts in cognitive linguistics goes back to conceptual metaphor.
Conceptual metaphor has been extensively studied in linguistic texts but recently, cognitive linguistics has taken a new direction and is examining conceptual metaphors and their role in other sciences as well.
Among these studies are researches that have examined conceptual metaphors in economics. There are two general approaches to the introduction of cognitive linguistics into economic discourses: The first approach is that linguists try to identify the dominant metaphors used in these texts by examining the main and fundamental books of economics in order to find out what metaphors in the foundation of economics is used to provide insight to economics students, and another approach is for linguists to try to show the results of applying these metaphors in practice by selecting up-to-date corpus of economic texts and extracting the dominant metaphors used in them. In view of the above, in order to conduct a joint research between cognitive linguistics and economics with a forward-looking view, in this study, we examined the role of conceptual metaphors in representing the rules of behavioral economics. Before presenting the report of the present study, we will first explain why behavioral economics was chosen as well as its basic foundations.
 
2.1. Why choose behavioral economics (negation of neoclassical economics):
 The main feature of neoclassical economics is its commitment to the theory of rational choice. This practice assumes that people behave in the way they should. If we want to argue according to the neoclassical economics assumption, one hundred percent rational people should not be influenced by emotions. However, financial decisions are generally subject to multiple biases (Guastello, 2016).
       Behavioral economics, in fact, came into being by violating the basic hypotheses of neoclassical economics based on the rationality of individuals and the cumulative equilibrium of the market. From the perspective of behavioral economics, individuals are not always rational, but their irrationality is not without rules but with recognizable rules (Walliser, 2008; Bourgine & Nadal, 2004). At the same time, prices are not simply derived from the intersection of supply and demand in the market, but the price that the consumer is willing to pay may have been completely manipulated by the supplier. Findings of behavioral economics in the field of irrational behavior as well as the way prices are set in the market are the same principles and rules of behavior, such as the effect of ownership, labeling and deterrence (Ariely, 2008). Behavioral economics, in fact, seeks to achieve a more accurate study and prediction of consumer behavior by guiding these rules. In order to get acquainted with behavioral economics, it is necessary to introduce some of its rules:
 
3. Theoretical framework
3.1. Rules of Behavioral Economics
A) Irrational valuation
People seldom consider the absolute and independent value of goods and services in their choices. There is no tool within humans to measure the value of options. Rather, we focus on the relative value of one thing over another and estimate value in this way (Ariely, 2008).
B) Difference in look - labeling
 Expectations also shape the headlines. One example is how to classify information in order to predict experiences. The brain cannot evaluate any new situation from scratch, and grouping or categorization helps the brain a lot in the meantime (ibid).
C) Social relations and market relations
We live in two worlds at the same time. One is a world in which social norms prevail and the other is a world in which market norms prevail. Social norms include friendly demands that people make (ibid).
In view of the rules of behavioral economics presented above, in this study we explored whether it is possible to represent the rules of behavioral economics through conceptual metaphors.
 
3. Methodology
This research was designed and implemented in two phases as follows.
 
4.1. Phase I subjects
This experiment was performed in two separate phases. Thus, the results of the first phase were indicative of the materials of the second phase of the experiment. Participants in the first phase initially consisted of 30 female students (because gender affects the dependent variable in the form of an independent variable of conceptual metaphors of labeling bias) studying in academic disciplines other than economics between the ages of 18 and 35.
 
4.2. Tools and process in the second phase of testing
In the second phase of the research, the conceptual metaphors selected from the first phase were used in three ways to prepare the main experimental materials.
 
4.3. Design of the second phase of the experiment
The method of designing the test materials was that the C-Sharp software was used to design the tests in order to be able to view the goods, specifications and also their prices along with the possibility of selecting the price desired by the subject by clicking on the Yes or No option for each price step.
 
4. Results
Finally, the study of hypotheses one to three of the present article on the effect of conceptual metaphors in implementing the behavioral rules of irrational valuation, labeling and replacing market values ​​with social values ​​showed that these three hypotheses are rejected by univariate analysis of variance but the forth hypothesis was not rejected.
The reasons might be as follow: The first category of reasons included the method of selecting our conceptual metaphors in the first phase, as well as the way in which they were explicitly displayed at the beginning of the introduction of the goods. At the same time, considering the achievement of examining the fourth hypothesis that conceptual metaphors related to irrational valuation are more effective in the task of purchasing and conceptual metaphors related to replacing market values ​​with social values ​​can be used in future research in these two areas to produce conceptual metaphors. He acted in a different way.
 
5. Discussion
In this study, we tried to find out whether it is possible to implement the three rules of irrational behavioral valuation, labeling and replacing market values ​​with social values ​​through the use of related conceptual metaphors. No further study has been done on the application of conceptual metaphors in behavioral economics. Examination of Hypotheses 1 to 3 of the present article on the effectiveness of conceptual metaphors in implementing behavioral rules of irrational valuation, labeling and replacing market values ​​with social values ​​showed that these three hypotheses are rejected. The reasons for rejecting these three hypotheses can be examined in two areas: First, the way our conceptual metaphors are selected in the first phase does not affect their Maximum Payout (WTP) and Minimum Receipt (WTA) decisions, respectively. It has been traded in assignments, and thus it can be stated that choosing different conceptual metaphors in this field in different ways can bring us different results. At the same time, in this area, the use of our conceptual metaphors explicitly at the beginning of the introduction of goods may have made the subjects aware of our purpose and has caused resistance to changing the decision to buy or sell. The second reason that can be stated to refute these three hypotheses could be that for our subjects, only purely technical information of the goods was important in the decision to buy and sell, and the sentences we used at the beginning to introduce the goods with metaphors, has had no effect. Examination of our fourth hypothesis on the effectiveness of conceptual metaphors related to the three types of irrational valuation bias, labeling and replacement of market values ​​with social values ​​showed that this hypothesis is not rejected, while the post hoc test showed that conceptual metaphors are most effective in buying when being related to irrational valuation, and while in the case of sales, the most effective were the conceptual metaphors related to the replacement of market values ​​with social values, while the conceptual metaphors related to labeling were not significant in this area
 
6. Conclusion
our results show that in order to influence the rules of behavioral economics through conceptual metaphors, one must either use another method to extract conceptual metaphors or introduce conceptual metaphors implicitly rather than explicitly into the economic presentation of goods. At the same time, the greater effectiveness of conceptual metaphors of irrational valuation in the task of buying and the effect of conceptual metaphors of replacing market values ​​with social values ​​in the task of selling can be promising. And therefore could be further explored in future research.