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ارمغان نظریه‌های ادبی تحلیل نظام‌مند ماهیّت ادبیات است. نخستین مرحله از تکامل فرمالیسم روسی «فرمالیسم مکانیکی» یا «فرمالیسم تقلیل‌گرایی» نام دارد. این نظریه در ژرف‌ساخت اندیشگانی خود برای تبیین ماهیت ادبیات از اسم‌انگاشت «ادبیات ماشین است» بهره می‌برد. هر چند تبیین ماهیّت ادبیات از طریق استعارۀ ماشین زمینۀ بروز خلاقیت و تسهیل در توضیح و تبیین نظریه را برای نظریه‌پرداز فراهم می‌کند ولی پژوهش‌های معاصر نشان می‌دهد که استعاره‌ها فرایند ادارکی نظریه‌پرداز و در نتیجه فرایند مطالعۀ موضوع و فرمول‌بندی نهایی نظریۀ را نیز تحت تأثیر قرار می‌دهند و به نوبۀ خود در بحث انتقال نظریۀ ادبی به سایر فرهنگ‌ها، کژکارکردهایی نیز خواهند داشت. چرا که ادراک هستی‌شناختی، معرفت‌شناختی و روش‌شناختی همۀ فرهنگ‌ها از حوزۀ مفهومی استعارۀ «ماشین» یکسان نیست. ازین‌رو، شاهد ظهور نوعی مطالعات فرمالیستی در زبان‌های مقصد، مانند زبان فارسی هستیم که تلقی خاصی از روش‌شناسی فرمالیستی دارند. بنابراین این نوشتار در صدد است با رویکرد توصیفی‌ ـ تحلیلی کارکردها و کژکارکردهای استعارۀ ماشین را در تبیین ماهیت اثر ادبی در فرایند نظریه‌پردازی فرمالیسم مکانیکی و نیز انتقال آن بررسی کند. برای این منظور ضمن بررسی ریشه‌های فکری و اندیشگانی اندیشۀ جهان ماشینی به نقش تقلیل‌گرایی دکارتی در شکل‌گیری سطوح مختلف نظریۀ فرمالیستی می‌پردازیم و سپس بر پایۀ علل اربعۀ ارستویی به مقایسۀ ماشین و ادبیات می‌پردازیم و تفاوت‌های ادراکی «ماشین» را در زبان‌های روسی، انگلیسی و فارسی به شکل مختصر بررسی می‌کنیم. بررسی‌ها نشان می‌دهد که تبیین ماهیت ادبیات بر مبنای استعارۀ مکانیکی، در مرحلۀ نظریه‌پردازی موجب شده است نظریه‌پرداز در فرمول‌بندی نظریه برای رسیدن به یک روش‌شناسی خلاق و سازگار با اثر ادبی ناکام بماند، و در مرحلۀ انتقال نیز تفسیر و کاربست آن با نوعی بدفهمی مواجه شود.

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Nowadays, one of the most fundamental and controversial theoretical discussions in literary criticism is to evade meta-theory in literary practices. The prominent thinkers in this area, known as neo-pragmatists, include Terry Eagleton, Stanley Fish, Steven Knapp, and Walter Benn Michaels who emphasize that the course of theory and criticism has now been diverted from its original aim of advancing social justice in the early eighteenth century and has now become a fetish that solidifies and reproduces the hierarchical society. In 1980s, we witnessed the acme of theoretical discussions and practices in literary studies; yet, in this decade, anti-theory and anti-theoretical discussions come to their acme, knowing Knapp and Michaels’ ideas as one of their key manifestos. Knapp and Michaels believe that theoretical discussions have been the result of the separation of such inseparable terms as meaning-intention, language-speech acts, and theory-practice, leading to “theoretical enterprise.” These two critics argue that since authorial discussions are “empirical” issues, theoretical responses to them do not solve the problem; rather, they are merely a “theoretical temptation.” In this article, following a concise survey of thinkers in the realm of theory and related concepts, in particular anti-theory, meta-theory, and post-theory, we have attempted to explore the two’s ideas, review reactions to them and the errors in their argument, and finally investigate what message Knapp and Michaels’ article can have for our country’s literary society.

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Literature has been a full-view mirror of social and economic developments. According to this macro perspective, the culture of work and life and the jobs that people have dealt with in some ways have been reflected in poetry. In fact, one of the written sources that can represent traditional occupations and popular beliefs about them is literature. These jobs were very common in traditional society but now are being forgotten due to the growth of societies and the dominance of industry, and they cannot be found except in museums. In this article, we will examine common occupations in the poems of Yaghma Jandaghi. Yaghma is one of the poets who, due to the diversity of his poems and the content of his works, has paid special attention to public culture and occupations of street and market people, and through their recollections, he has nurtured novel meanings and themes. Various occupations such as blacksmithing, gardening, grocery, sewing, nursing, etc. have been reflected in his poems. The current research was carried out using a descriptive-analytical method. The results of the examination of occupations in Yaghma's poems show that his poetry, while having literary, aesthetic and meaning-making uses, also gives a clear picture of the economic and livelihood foundation of that time. In turn, it can open a new chapter of discussion under the title of work culture in the subcategory of public culture.
 

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With the development of the language-based learning approach, language pedagogy takes more advantage of Child and Adolescent literature in teaching to non-native speakers. Besides, language plans were driven to adopt certain expected features; such as modern grammatical and morphological structures, expressing tangible meanings and events of everyday life, being pleasant, equipping learners with eloquence methods, and applying general and universal language pedagogy issues. Since literary texts have various levels and types, language education policymakers need to consider them in designating language plans. With survey methods, this paper illustrates the significance role of Child and Adolescent literature in teaching Persian to non-Persian learners. To achieve this goal, the authors created a questionnaire with eight literary genres in Child and Adolescent literature at three levels of language proficiency. The questionnaire was sent non-randomly to 94 Iranian teachers, experts in teaching Persian to non-Persian speakers and acquaintance with Persian literature. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS 22, calculating one-way Chi-square, applying Friedman and Mann-Whitney statistical test. Data analysis reveals that the relevant indices for beginner levels are either minor or insignificant. However, in the intermediate and advanced levels children’s tales and stories, along with adolescent poetry, are more emphasized.

1. Introduction
Children and adolescent literary texts retain an important role in teaching English as a second/foreign language, as some of the features of this literature have turned it into an indisputable pedagogy tool. Some of the many beneficial characteristics of this literature include the vocabulary and modern language structures which are close to the standard criteria of a language (due to novelty and lack of archaism), expression of tangible concepts and everyday events of the learners’ lives (due to categorization of the audience), introduction of eloquence methods to the learners simply and pleasantly, benefitting from general and global concepts, the ability to adjust the length and difficulty level of these texts to the goals and levels of the learners, and uniformity of the features and elements of this literature with the optimal structures of extensive-reading sources. Although, in many languages and especially in Persian, this literary category consists of many different sub-categories, and the choice of suitable texts requires thorough study and research. Hence, using the survey method and inquiring about the views of expert teachers in teaching Persian to non-native learners, the present study aims to determine the position of each of these sub-categories in teaching Persian to adult non-native learners at different (learning) levels.
The questions that the present study is posing to answer are as follows:
1. From the POV of expert teachers of Persian as a second/foreign language, how important are children and adolescent literature indices in teaching Persian to non-native learners at beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels?
2. What is the best order of application of children and adolescent content, based on the degree of importance, in teaching Persian to non-native learners of beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels?
3. How effective is the experience level of teachers in the determination of the importance of children and adolescent literature in teaching Persian to non-native speakers?
2. Methodology
The present study, which has been conducted across the universities and Persian language institutes of the country (Iran), has used the survey method. The study sample consisted of 94 Iranian teachers with experience in the field of teaching Persian as a second/foreign language who were also familiar with Persian literature. They were therefore chosen by a non-random, purposeful method based on accessibility.
The measuring tool of the study is a researcher-made questionnaire which was designed by using a five-point Likert scale based on the importance scale, degree of significance, and accordingly, the significance of applying examples of children and adolescent literature in creating educational material for teaching Persian to non-native speakers of beginner, intermediate and advanced levels and teaching Persian based on children and adolescent literature content from the point of view of expert and skilled Persian teachers.
To examine the validity of the questionnaire, two methods of face validity (views and modifications of experts on the statements of the questionnaire) and construct validity (the number of initial similarities between the statements) were employed. Hence, the face validity of the questionnaire was confirmed according to the opinion of experts, and the construct validity was verified by the minimum number of similarities between statements (0/7) at three levels beginner, intermediate, and advanced. Next, the final questionnaire was distributed online to be answered by the sample population.
To check the reliability of the questionnaire, an initial sample of 30 completed questionnaires was examined as a pre-test. Then, Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the questionnaires were calculated using the obtained data from the initial sample. The amount of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels were 0,881, 0,943, and 0,933, respectively, which confirms the acceptable reliability of the questionnaire.

3. Summary and Conclusion
Examination of some of the educational material used for teaching Persian to non-natives shows little evidence of using children and adolescent literature, which could be a result of consecutive cognitive issues about examples of this literature. This means that the consciousness of the authors of examined teaching materials about the differences between the dominant narrative in children’s literature and adult literature might have led them to believe that instances of children’s literature cannot present an appropriate learning template for adult Persian learners and, in other words, this literary category might be inappropriate for an adult audience.
Also, research results show that the sample population distinguishes between examples of children and adolescent literature, such as 4 indices of folklore children’s literature including lullabies, nursery rhymes, game songs, and tales, and formally-recognized children and adolescent literature that consists of 4 manifestations including children and adolescent poetry and prose(stories). They identify the former category (folklore) as unimportant, but they permit the use of children’s poetry on an intermediate level, adolescent poetry, and children’s and adolescent prose (stories) on intermediate and advanced levels. Therefore, the aforementioned criteria can be used to compose educational texts for teaching Persian to non-native learners. By correctly choosing the material, the issue of balance between the topics and concepts and the adult audience can be resolved.