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Ayat al-ahkam of prayer are verses in which divine commands about prayer are in the form of prescriptive discourse; But the point that is raised about such verses is that despite the rule of prescriptive discourse on them, in many of these verses, the actor is one of the components of inductive discourse (encouragement, threat, etc.) has also used; For this reason, in this research, it is the question of what function the inductive discourses have in these verses, and despite them, what kind of discourse structure does this category of commandment verses have? In this research, which was carried out with the analytical and applied method and based on the semiotic-semantics approach of Garmes, an attempt has been made to examine the 17 verses of the Qur'an, which are known as the commandments of prayer, from the point of view of prescriptive and inductive discourse, in order to determine how their discourse structure is. And the function of inductive discourses should also be clarified in these verses; The findings of this research show that the inductive discourses used in addition to the prescriptive discourse are anti-discourses that have provided semantic support to the performance of the prescriptive action by the actors in two ways, and their presence has created a unified system of prescription and induction in these verses. Is.

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Error is a common and yet predictable phenomenon in the process of learning a second language. Traditionally, errors were seen as obstacles in learning a second language. So they should be avoided, but today errors are regarded as important factors in learning a second language. Language interferences are a category of errors that are the result of transferring a native’s language knowledge to the target language. Language transfer may occur in two ways: positive and negative transfer. Positive transfer occurs when there are similarities between source language and target languages. This transfer will help learning a second language. Negative transfer occurs in cases where there are differences between first and second languages and they cause language interferences.

The present research, within the framework of "error analysis" based on Brown (2007) classification of errors, is intended to analyze the syntactic errors that result from the interference between Kalhori Kurdish and Persian in the speech of Kalhori natives. So, among speech errors, syntactic errors, and among them the errors caused by the interference between first language and second language were analyzed. The approach of this study is integrated (quantitative/qualitative). The sample included 170 bilingual Kalhori males and females living in Kermanshah. They were selected via voluntary sampling method. Interviews were held in the presence of interviewees to collect data, during which participants were asked to speak about a memory in Persian.  The results of the study showed that errors from the most frequent to the least frequent were of components of compound verbs, prepositions, order of components in a sentence, “ra”, incorrect verb, using redundant “je”, conjunction and incorrect pronoun. The reason for the occurrence of language interference in the speech of Kalhori natives is that in the mind of language learners, Kurdish language system is completely formed as the first language. According to the transfer theory, the reason for the existence of interlingual errors is the existence of this mental system. At the beginning of learning Persian as a second language, the language learner relies in many cases on his first language. Thus, using first language structure leads to the interference of structures.

The results of the present study can help to present some pedagogical guidelines for teachers, syllabus designers, test constructors and language learners to decrease problems of learning Persian. So if a teacher becomes aware of linguistic findings, such as error analysis, he can figure out why learning is not happening. In addition to that identifying errors helps teachers to evaluate the progress of their students and they become aware of the points they should put more emphasis. Also, the results of this study can help syllabus designers to design books for bilingual students. Since the purpose of the tests is to evaluate students' knowledge, test constructors, with knowledge of the errors recognize where students have difficulty with. In this way, the reason for the problems of bilingual students is not just their lack of attention to the lessons.  Learners themselves can make their assumptions about language through their errors and identify and resolve their linguistic problem.

 
 

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Ellipsis constructions are formal patterns in which certain syntactic structure that is expressed to convey the intended content is omitted. The aim of this paper is to provide the basis for a cognitive construction grammar description of coordination ellipsis and gapping in Persian language. Therefore, the present research is based on the descriptive-analytical method, and since ellipsis is widely used in both written and spoken Persian, our corpus will include both types and it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. The results show that Persian data can be analyzed, using the concept of access and activation introduced by Langacker (2012). Non-constituent coordination is analyzed in the context of other sorts of clausal reduction, including the accentual reduction of unfocused elements as well as ellipsis, where overlapping content is left unexpressed. A pivotal desctiptive notion is the differential i.e. the content appearing in one clausal window that does not appear in the prior window. The results, also, show that the placement of the differential, when it intrrupts the baseline clause, is important. So, It can easily say that the differential directly follows the anti-differential.
 

1.  Introduction

Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics and is a cluster of overlapping approaches to the study of language as a mental phenomenon. It is the study of language in its cognitive function, where cognitive refers to the crucial role of intermediate informational structures with our encounters with the world. Cognitive Linguistics assumes that our interaction with the world is mediated through informational structures in the mind (Evans et al. 2006).
Cognitive Grammar which is the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics  is a branch of cognitive linguistics (Langacker, 1991). Croft and Cruse (2004) believe that ‘Cognitive Grammar’s model of syntactic representation is a construction grammar model’. They state that the Cognitive Grammar as a construction grammar emphasizes on symbolic and semantic definitions of theoretical constructs traditionally analyzed as purely syntactic.
     The aim of this paper is to provide the basis for a cognitive construction grammar description of coordination ellipsis and gapping in Persian language. Goldberg and Perek (2015) have defined ‘ellipsis constructions as formal patterns in which certain syntactic structure that is expressed to convey the intended content is omitted.’ There are some ellipsis constructions that the most commonly discussed of them are: gapping, sluicing, verb phrase ellipsis, stripping.
     Goldberg and Perek (ibid) believes that there are general commonalties among ellipsis constructions and the existence of these elliptical constructions is motivated by Grice’s maxim of Quantity, i.e. “say as much as is necessary for the communicative demands and no more”. When we can recover some part of intended interpretation, there is no need for it to be overtly specified (Shannon 1993; Piantadosi et al. 2011). Then according to Goldberg and Perek(2015) ellipsis constructions exist in every language, undoubtedly. 
The present study is based on the descriptive-analytical method, and since ellipsis is widely used in both written and spoken Persian, our corpus will include both types and it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. We also want to answer the following questions:

1.  Can coordination ellipsis in Persian be explaind in the context of Cognitive Grammar?
2.  Can gappin in Persian be explaind in the context of Cognitive Grammar?
3.  What are the roles of differential and anti-differential in these constructions?

 

2.  Analysis

    The data showed that in case of ellipsis an expression that is not itself a clause nonetheless receives a clause-like interpretation by analogy to one that is. In the following example ‘a Benz’ in (1b) can be understood in the same manner as the second clause in (1a). according to Langacker (2012) ‘in both expressions, content that overlaps with the prior clause is less than fully manifested phonologically. The difference is one of degree: accentual reduction in (a), complete omission in (b)’.

1.  a. Ali ye mashin xarid. Ou ye Benz xarid

    Ali one car buy.PST. 3SG. He one Benz buy. PST. 3SG.
    Ali bought a car. He bought a Benz
      b. Ali ye mashin xarid. Ye Benz.
    Ali one car buy.PST. 3SG. one Benz.
    Ali bought a car. A Benz.
    We can show the ellipsis in (1b) in the following figure in which all the content of window i remains active in i+1. It is as if one were saying [Ali bought] a Benz.
 
Figure 1
ellipsis

 
    In the case of gapping according to Langacker (ibid) we see that the differential and anti-differential are non-constituents (at least prior to coordination) in the following example:

1. Ali mahin ro shost, va Amir toop ro.

   Ali car ACC wash.PST. 3SG, and Amir ball ACC.
   Ali washed the car, and Amir the ball 
    As we see the nominals in window i+1 specify two points of difference: Amir contrasts with Ali, and toop with mashin. Hence, the event of washing reconstructed in i+1 (by analogy to window i) is a different instance of this process type.
 
 
 
3. Conclusion
    The results showed that Persian data can be analyzed, using the concept of access and activation introduced by Langacker (2012). Non-constituent coordination is analyzed in the context of other sorts of clausal reduction, including the accentual reduction of unfocused elements as well as ellipsis, where overlapping content is left unexpressed. A pivotal desctiptive notion is the differential i.e. the content appearing in one clausal window that does not appear in the prior window. The results, also, showed that the placement of the differential, when it intrrupts the baseline clause, is important. So, It can easily say that the differential directly follows the anti-differential.
 

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The non-linear order of revelations is often considered by many scholars to signify lack of coherence, disunity, and fragmentariness. It seems that 'coherence' and the related terms have veiled a significant linguistic feature of the Qur’an, namely, the non-linear nature of revelations, which might be used to make a distinction between ordinary and Quranic discourse. We will argue that to unveil the non-linearity, we should consider revelations in relation to God who reveals Himself in language not as an ordinary speaker whose speech is limited to a certain context, with a beginning and an end. We should not expect God to speak like a man. The Qur’an, thus, is seen here as a non-temporal, non-linear text that reflects its divine origin, by systematically destructing the spacio-temporal context and the linear order of language.

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The present study aims at exploring kinship terms and the different ways in which they are used to refer to and address relatives and non-relatives in Hawrami, an Iranian language spoken in Paveh, a border city in Kermanshah province. The relevant linguistic and cultural data are obtained primarily by one of the researchers as a native speaker of the dialect and through field works and interviews with native speakers. In addition to analyzing consanguineal and affinal terms, and words for step-relatives, some space is also devoted to discuss pragmatic aspects of the words, particularly in contexts where the terms are used to address relatives as well as non-relatives. Considering the fact that the authors came across no serious study of Hawrami kinship terminology, the present study might be one of the first preliminary steps to a better understanding of the cultural and anthropological aspects of this Iranian dialect.