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Recently the previous Caspian ecosystem is in a catastrophic condition which caused changes in the absolute and relative abundance of the commercially important Caspian kutum (Rutilus frisii kutum) in Iranian waters. The paper presents estimates of yield-per-recruit and spawning biomass-per-recruit under various harvest strategies of F_max, F_0.1, F_30%. It proposes a method for estimating acceptable biological catch (ABC) that accounts for large differences in the quality and quantity of information and available data. The current average Y/R (with F=0.61/y, and t_c=3.2 y) was 218.3 g per recruit, which indicates that the fishery is operating below the maximum Y/R at 236.9 g when t_c = 3.5 y. The Y/R was the highest at F_max and F_0.1, when t_c = 4 y (244.8 g and 214.2 g), respectively. The F_30% value was 0.85/y at t_c of 4 y with the SB/R of 338.3 g. The F_current (0.61/y at current t_c is 3.2 y) is higher than the corresponding reference points, F_0.1 (0.47/y) and F_30% (0.46/y). The ABC of kutum was estimated at 7,850 mt in 2009-2010.

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The carob moth is one of the most devastating pests of pomegranate and some other products. Various pest control measures have been undertaken in order to control this pest but none of them has been successful so far. In the current study the effects of cereal seed proteinaceous extracts including triticale and three wheat cultivars (MV17, Aflak, and Zare) have been studied on α-amylase and protease activity of salivary glands of this insect.Initial screening showed 38, 44, 28 and 76% inhibitory effect for triticlae, MV-17, Aflak, and Zare cereal seed extracts respectively on α-amylase activity. Further studies were performed with Zare wheat cultivar using various concentrations including 13, 6.5, 3.25, 1.625 and 0.8125 µg protein on the enzyme activity and results showed that they inhibited the enzyme activity by 76, 75, 68, 60, and 42%, respectively. Gel assays confirmed the spectrophotometric data i.e the effect of the seed extract on the enzyme was dose dependant. The same trend was observed when seed extracts were tested against proteinase activity. These data suggest that plants produce different proteins with different specificity toward herbivores digestive enzymes some of which could be used for insect control in IPM program.

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Essential oils are volatile mixtures of hydrocarbons with diverse functional groups. In the current study the effect of essential oils from five medicinal plants including Zataria multiflora and Nepeta cataria (Lamiaceae), Tagetes minuta and Artemisia sieberi (Asteraceae), and Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae) were analyzed using GC-mass spectrometry. The toxicity of these plant essential oils against the adult stage of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) was studied using a fumigant assay.GC/Mass analysis revealed that the main essential oils varied between species. The most abundant components in N. cataria, Z. multiflora, T. ammi, T. minuta and A. sieberi were 4a-α, 7-β, 7a-α-nepetalactone (76.8%), carvacrol (62.1%), γ-terpinene (27.1%), limonene (13.0%) and artemisia ketone (48.0%) respectively. The fumigant assays showed that all of these essential oils were toxic to B.brassicae in a dose-dependent manner. The essential oils of N. cataria at 126, 63, 31, 16, 8, and 3 μl L^-1 air caused 94, 76, 52, 46, 36, and 24% mortality within 24 hours, respectively. The same trend was seen when essential oils of the other plants were tested against B. brassicae. These plant essential oils have great potential to be used in integrated pest management especially in greenhouses or other closed systems.

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The elm leaf beetle, Xanthogalerucella luteola (Muller) (Col.: Chrysomelidae) is a serious pest of elm trees and it has been distributed all over the world. The current study was undertaken to investigate the inhibitory effects of protein extracts of three weed seeds including datura Datura stramonium L., amaranth Amaranthus retroflexus L. and wild oat Avena fatua L. against X. luteola α-amylase using spectrophotometric assay as well as in gel assays. The effects of five concentrations of each seed proteinaceous extracts were tested on α-amylase activity of the larval gut. The results showed a dose dependent manner in inhibition of the insect enzyme. At the highest concentration of protein extracts (12 μg protein) of all three seed extracts including amaranth, wild oat and datura, the inhibition was 71, 79 and 31%, respectively. Whilst, at low concentration (0.75 μg protein), the inhibition observed was 15, 36 and 5%, respectively. Thus, the greatest inhibition percentage was obtained when proteinaceous extract of wild oat seed was used. These results were confirmed when in gel assays were performed. All three seed proteinaceous extracts had an optimum pH inhibition of 6.0. Thus, it is concluded that wild oat seed proteins are potentially good for detailed investigation in order to get a clear picture of its active compound/s and its structure-function relationship.    

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The egg parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma have become one of the most important economic insects, for they are widely used in biological control of Lepidopteran key pests. For that reason, all aspects of their mass production including diapause have been considered over the last few years. In this study, the effect of host quality on the diapause induction of sexual and asexual T. brassicae Bezdenko (Hym: Trichogrammatidae) have been investigated at two temperatures. Maternal generation developed at two distinct temperatures (14 and 20 °C) and they oviposited on four different qualities of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lep: Pyralidae) eggs including fresh eggs, frozen eggs, host eggs with developing embryo and low quality eggs. Data analysis revealed significant influence of temperature and host quality on diapause induction in both sexual and asexual strains. Maximum diapause happened in host eggs with developing embryo even though they were in fetal development. A higher level of diapause was observed in T. brassicae whose maternal generation had developed at 20 °C. The diapause induction in asexual T. brassicae was less than sexual wasps. The results imply that Wolbachia causes a disturbance in the diapause process. The outcomes of this study, which are new, indicate the complexity of diapause and the importance of factors such as host quality which have received less attention in diapause induction. 

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During the last decade, plant and microbial-derived metabolites have received growing attention as potential tools for pest management in agriculture. Pederin (C₂₅H₄₅NO₉) is a vesicant toxin produced by Pseudomonas-like bacterial symbionts of rove beetles within the genus Paederus (Col: Staphylinidae). In this study, the toxicity of pederin to two stored product pests, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lep: Pyralidae) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Col: Tenebrionidae) was evaluated using laboratory bioassays. Probit analysis estimated the median lethal concentrations of pederin as 1311.96 and 596.36ppm for E. kuehniella fourth larval instar and T. confusum adults, respectively. We also measured the activity of two major digestive enzymes (amylases and proteases) as well as three major detoxifying enzymes (P_450s monooxygenases, glutathione S-transferases, and carboxyl esterases) in insects treated orally with pederin. Feeding on pederin resulted in significant decrease in the activity of amylolytic, proteolytic, and carboxyl esterase enzymes, but significant increase in the activity of P_450s and glutathione S-transferases. Results of this study may highlight pederin as a novel source of pesticides with unique mode of action for use in pest management programs.

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In the present study, the cuticle-degrading enzymes production potential of five native Beauveria bassiana (TV, OZ, UN, DV and DE) isolates was investigated in the presence of cuticles from Eurygaster integriceps, Ephestia kuehniella and Zophobas morio. Furthermore, histopathology of infected insects by B. bassiana was studied. The level of cuticle degrading enzymes was the highest and lowest for TV (as the most virulent isolate) and DE (as the weakest isolate), respectively. E. integriceps nymphs as the most sensitive host produced the highest level of cuticle degrading enzymes (Pr2, exochitinase, and lipase) while Z. morio as the most resistant host, produced the lowest level of hydrolytic enzymes. According to histopathological study, the fungal isolate could not penetrate into Z. morio cuticle, as no mycelia or hyphae were observed in its tissues after inoculation, while fungal bodies were detected in microscopic slides of the other two insects. Overall, the chemical and topographical structure of insect cuticle had a substantial effect on the virulence of entomopathogenic fungus. Production of enzymes including proteases (especially Pr2), chitinase (N-acetyl-glucosaminidase), and lipases was positively related to virulence of fungus isolates. It can be concluded that not only the hydrolytic activity of B. bassiana isolates, but also host cuticle composition determine the pathogenesis and virulence cascade in fungus-insect interactions.

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The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, is a major pest of crops and ornamental plants worldwide. It is a highly polyphagous pest that has a notorious reputation for its ability to rapidly develop resistance to commonly used pesticides. Thus, in the current study, the contact toxicity of propargite (EC 57%) and chlorpyrifos (EC 40.8%) was investigated against two populations of T. urticae from Iran, Mahallat (MhR) and Karaj (KrS), using a leaf-dip bioassay. Findings showed that the LC₅₀ of propargite against MhR and KrS populations was 5337.90 and 116.81 mg a.i/l, respectively. While the LC₅₀ of the chlorpyrifos against MhR and KrS populations was 2760.83 and 479.25 mg a.i/l, respectively. Based on the median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀), MhR and KrS populations were considered as resistant and susceptible populations to both pesticides, respectively. MhR population was 5.76-fold and 45.70-fold more resistant to chlorpyrifos and propargite than the KrS population, respectively. Insecticide synergists including triphenyl phosphate (TPP), piperonyl butoxide (PBO), and diethyl maleate (DEM)) revealed the contribution of esterases, glutathione S-transferases (GST), and cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenases (P₄₅₀s) to resistance. Nonetheless, the involvement of esterases and P₄₅₀s was more evident against chlorpyrifos and propargite, respectively. The activity of P₄₅₀s, GSTs, esterases, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was measured in susceptible and resistant populations. All enzymes showed significantly higher activity in the resistant population than in the susceptible one. Additionally, zymogram analysis of esterase showed two distinct bands in the MhR population, whereas the stronger band was absent in KrS population. These results indicate that metabolic pathways are associated with chlorpyrifos and propargite resistance in the MhR population.
 

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The entomopathogenic-fungus-life cycle is associated with the synthesis and secretion of a number of toxic metabolites, including extracellular enzymes and the low-molecular weight compound (toxin). The potential for a successful pathogen relies on the ability to overcome the various host-defence systems. Interaction between the fungus, Tolypocla-dium (Deuteromycetes), its secondary metabolite, and its host cellular defence were inves-tigated using in vivo and in vitro studies. In vitro studies showed that toxins (efrapeptins) inhibit phagocytic activity of Galleria mellonella (Lep: Pyralidae) haemocytes. The effect of efrapeptins on phagocytosis was in a dose-dependent manner i.e. the amount of phago-cytosis in a treated cell-culture with 0, 3, and 30 g efrapeptins per well was about 12, 7.5, and 4.5 %, respectively (P<0.05). In vivo studies showed that injection of insects with 0, 0.25, and 0.025 g toxin rendered percentages of phagocytosis of 13, 11.5, and 7.2, respec-tively (P<0.05). There was no significant reduction in the total haemocyte count (THC) when larvae were injected with Tolypocladium cylindrosporum spores until 24 hours fol-lowing injection. However, THC was suppressed at 48 hours post-treatment of larvae with spores. Considering that toxin suppresses phagocytosis, nodule formation, but not THC, this study suggests that efrapeptins may interfere with the ligand-receptor interactions that are likely to occur in the plasma membrane of specific haemocytes.

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The European Corn Borer (ECB) is one of the most important insect pests of corn and some other crops such as rice in Iran. This pest is one of the most important hosts of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, a well known fungal entomopathogen with high host range and considerable potential in insect pest control. In an isolate selection program of fungal isolates against ECB, ten isolates consisting of eight isolates from Iran and two from other countries were assayed using the dipping method on third instar larvae of ECB. Inoculum concentrations were 104, 105, 106, 107, and 108 conidia ml-1. For each concentration, 30 larvae were dipped into the conidial suspension for 30 secends. Control larvae were treated with distilled water containing 0.03 percent Tween-80 as surfactant. Each experiment was repeated three times. Results showed that BEH isolate which was isolated from the soil of insects living in the field, caused the highest mortality in larvae in comparison with other isolates with a mean of 57.67 percent mortality using 108 conidia ml-1. Other isolates, such as DEBI007 and EVIN I, were scored in the lower position with producing 53.43 and 42.67 percent mortality, respectively. EVIN II, DEBI002, and DEBI008 caused the lowest mortality in assayed larvae. A decrease in larval feeding was detectable a few days before death. Possible causes for the low mortality in isolates are discussed.

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A study of insect digestive enzymes makes sense given that the gut is the major interface between the insect and its environment. An understanding of gut and digestive enzyme function is essential when advanced methods of insect management such as application of enzyme inhibitors and transgenic plants are developed to control insect pests. The aim of the current research project was to study midgut anatomy, midgut pH and α-glucosidase activity in Sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemip: Scutelleridae). Sunn pest midgut is comprised of four distinct regions including first ventriculus (V1), second ventriculus (V2), third ventriculus (V3) and finally fourth ventriculus (V4). The study showed that the first three regions of the Sunn pest midgut are more acidic (pH= 5–5.2), the fourth region moderately acidic (pH= 6.2–6.4), and hindgut slightly acidic (pH= 6.5–6.8). Enzyme assay showed that α-glucosidase activity is present in midgut and salivary glands of adult E. intergriceps. The specific activity of midgut enzyme was 0.17 U mg protein-1 while the specific activity of the salivary glands enzyme was 0.033 U mg protein-1. Optimum temperature and pH values for α-glucosidase were determined to be 40-45°C and 5, respectively. Based on linear regression analysis of reciprocal p-nitrophenyl substrate (p-nitrophenyl α-D-glucopyranoside) concentration versus reciprocal α-glucosidase activity Km and Vmax were 17 and 0.9 mM p-nitrophenol min-1, respectively. The effect of different ion concentrations on α-glucosidase activity showed that Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ ions exerted positive effects on the enzyme activity. Other compounds tested such as urea, SDS, Tween 80, Triton X-100 and EDTA had an inhibitory effect on enzyme activity.

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The Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestia kueheniella is one of the most severe pests in stores worldwide. Like many other stored product pests, chemical pesticides are often used to control this insect. As many of these chemicals negatively impact non-target species, safer alternative methods are needed. Temperature is one of the environmentally friendly control methods that can achieve the desired levels of control. Still, the insects' induction of cold and heat tolerance can decrease control efficacy. In the current study, we first investigated the susceptibility of all developmental stages of the Mediterranean flour moth to extreme heat and cold temperatures. Exposure to 44 °C for 80 minutes or -15 °C for 30 minutes caused significant mortalities in all developmental stages. Exposure to mild low or high temperatures induced cold or heat tolerance and reduced the mortality rate. Quantitative RT-PCR confirmed that heat or cold-inducible tolerance was accompanied by up-regulation of transcripts for two heat shock proteins, HSP70 and HSP90; transcript levels of HSP70 and HSP90 increased 3.8 and 4.3-fold after pre-exposure to 35°C for 30 min and 3.8 and 3.3-fold after pre-exposure to 10°C for 30 min compared to controls, respectively. Suppression of HSP70 and HSP90 transcripts using RNA interference (RNAi) significantly reduced heat and cold tolerance, indicating that these two proteins play a crucial role in the induction of heat and cold tolerance in the Mediterranean flour moth.



 

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The experiment was conducted to determine α-amylase activity and the effect of seven plant species extracts including Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae), Rheum officinale B. (Polygonaceae), Rhus coriaria L. (Anacardiaceae), Artemisia sieberi B. ( Compositae), Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae) , Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae) and Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) on α-amylase activity of four stored insect pests including Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), Rhyzopertha dominica F. (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), Sitophilus granarius L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and Trogoderma granarium E. (Coleoptera : Dermestidae). Also, gut pH and optimum temperature for α-amylase activity of these insects were determined. It was found that α -amylases midgut pH of all four insect species was acidic and optimum temperature was between 30 and 40 °C. Beyond these temperatures, the α-amylases activities sharply decreased. Plant extracts caused inhibitory activity on insect α-amylases varying from nearly 4% to 95% inhibition. D. stramonium and R. officinali extracts had the highest amylase inhibitory activity among the tested extracts, while methanolic extracts of P. harmala, and T. vulgaris (except for S. granaries α-amylase) showed the lowest inhibitory activity. Gel assays revealed that more than one isoform of α -amylase detected in midgut crude extracts of the four insect pests examined could be inhibited by the plant extracts.

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Two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), is one of the most injurious pests of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants worldwide, both outdoor and indoors. Currently the main method of control of this pest is through application of pesticides which is mostly accompanied by the resistance of the pest against pesticide(s). The resurgence of resistant mite populations brings about further contamination of foodstuff and environment. Essential oils obtained from the aerial parts of plants may have the potential to be an alternative to synthetic pesticides, since they have been demonstrated to posses a wide range of bioactivities against insects and mites. So, the aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of essential oils extracted from three different medicinal plants namely: Mentha longifolia, Salvia officialis (both Lamiaceae) and Myrtus communis (Myrtaceae) against T. urticae. The LC50 values of essential oils of M. longifolia, M. communis, and S. officialis against T. urticae were 20.08, 53.22, 60.93 µl L-1 air, respectively. This shows that M. longifolia possesses the highest lethal activity whereas S. officialis the lowest. Also, essential oils of M. longifolia, M. communis, and S. officialis were demonstrated to possess repellency effect with ED50s of 147.47, 138.80 and 164.41, µl L-1 air, respectively. These data suggest that essential oils of all the three plants have the potential to be employed in the pest management programs designed for a control of T. urticae under greenhouse conditions.

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Beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua (Hubner)) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is the most economically important sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) pest worldwide. The main control method of this pest is insecticides use. Thus, it is important to develop alternative means of controlling this pest, including host plant resistance using plant lectins. In the current study, the effects of GNA (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin) on the growth and development of beet armyworm were investigated using artificial diet. The presence of GNA in the diet at a level of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0% of the total dietary protein significantly reduced larval and pupal survivability compared with the control insects (P< 0.001). When high doses of GNA (0.5 and 1.0% of dietary protein) were incorporated into the diet, no larvae reached the fourth stadium. Only the lowest dose (0.1% GNA) allowed for larval and pupal development to continue to adult. The lectin retarded larval development in a dose dependent manner. For example, developmental time of the first instar larva in the control was 2.3 days, while in 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0% GNA treatments this value increased to 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.9 days, respectively. Larval developmental time (time taken from neonate first instar larvae to pupation) in the control and lectin treatment (0.1% GNA) were 14.1 and 17.2 days, respectively. GNA also affected duration of pupal period, adult longevity, and adult emergence. In conclusion, it should be said that GNA has a good potential to be used in IPM program in order to combat this insect species.

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The Sunn pest is a serious pest of cereals causing severe damage to cereals especially of wheat. Its life cycle has two different phases, one is growth and development phase and the other is diapause phase which takes place in adult stage. In this study the effects of juvenile hormone analogue pyriproxyfen, ecdysone analogue methoxyfenozide and mixture of pyriproxyfen and methoxyfenozide on diapause termination of

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In this study, the energy reserves of prediapause and diapausing adult bugs were examined using colorimetric biochemical techniques to determine carbohydrates, lipids, glycogen, and protein content. To this end, 45-day-old bugs were obtained from three different sources: laboratory colony, cold-stored insects, or natural habitat. The results showed that prediapause males and females had significantly lower lipids than laboratory cultured bugs, those were collected in natural habitat, and cold-treated diapausing insects. In contrast to lipids, carbohydrate and glycogen contents were significantly higher in prediapause males and females than in diapausing insects. Glycogen content in laboratory-reared females and males were significantly higher than in their counterparts from natural habitat. In conclusion, Sunn pest energy reserves change from prediapause to diapause phases. Prediapause Sunn pest bugs accumulate lipids for their metabolic needs during diapause and for post-diapause functions that include dispersal and reproduction.

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Potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera; Gelechiidae) is a worldwide pest of solanaceous crops. Larvae feed inside galleries in foliage, stems and tubers making chemical control unsuccessful, so other control methods should be applied. In recent years many plants have received genes that encode toxic proteins as a strategy to resist insect pests. In this study, optimal pH and temperature of digestive α-amylase and protease activities of potato tuberworm and the effect of triticale (X Triticosecale wittmack cv. Sanabad), rye (Secale cereale L. cv. Danko) and black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) seed proteinaceous extracts against enzymes activities were evaluated using starch 1% and azocasein 2% as a substrate, respectively. The optimum pH of α-amylase and protease activities was found to be highly alkaline. Enzymes inhibition assays showed that amylase activity was significantly affected by extracts from triticale and rye by pH (P= 0.05; maximum effect at pH 9) and influencing of protease activity by extracts mentioned above did not vary by pHs 8-11 and 9-11, respectively. Extracts from black nightshade seed had no effect on enzymes activity. Inhibition manner of various concentrations; 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, 0.187 and 0.093 (mg protein ml^-1) of extracts were dose-dependent. Maximum inhibitory effect occurred at the highest concentration and the minimum was at the lowest concentration. In polyacrylamide gel assay, both enzymes, without inhibitors showed two isozymes, which at highest concentration of extracts, both bands disappeared or their intensity decreased. So, these proteins can be introduced to be encoded in producing resistant potato crops against potato tuberworm.

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The present study examined the light wavelengths effect on the diapause percentage of progeny and energy reserves of maternal generation in sexual and asexual Trichogramma brassicae that had been reared under different light wavelengths before oviposition. Photoperiod has a maternal effect on the diapause induction in Trichogramma wasps; however, the light wavelengths effect on their diapause has not been studied. In this study, we reared the maternal generation of both strains under five light wavelengths including blue (455~475 nm), green (515~535 nm), orange (585~595 nm), red (620~630 nm), and white (5,000~10,000 K), and allowed 24 hours old females to oviposit in Ephestia kuehniella eggs. The diapausing generation was placed at 10°C and absolute darkness for two months. The results showed that Wolbachia infection and light wavelengths had significant effects on the diapause percentage and energy reserves of T. brassicae, excepting glycogen contents. The maximum and minimum diapause percentage was observed under green and white light in asexual, and under white and green light in sexual strain. The data showed that the sexual strain had lower lipid and protein levels than the asexual strain, except when exposed under white light. The diapause percentage in the sexual strain was higher than in the asexual strain under all light wavelengths, and the reaction of parasitoids toward light wavelengths was different in the two strains. Therefore, Wolbachia can cause a different reaction to light wavelengths in both diapause percentage and pattern of the parasitoid. These results should be considered to improve mass-rearing and long-term storage of this parasitoid.
 

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Abstract:
Objective: Despite the availability of effective vaccines and antiviral treatments, influenza remains a significant cause of hospitalizations and mortality globally. This study aimed to evaluate the epidemiological characteristics, clinical manifestations, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with seasonal influenza in two referral centers in northeastern Iran.
Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study analyzed data from 58 patients with a mean age of 45 who tested positive for seasonal influenza via PCR. These patients were hospitalized at Imam Reza and Qaem hospitals between 2009 and 2017. Data were collected using a standardized checklist and analyzed using SPSS software version 23. Non-normally distributed data were assessed using the Mann-Whitney test, while qualitative variables were compared using the Chi-square test, with Fisher's exact test applied when necessary.
Results: Among the 58 influenza-infected patients, 37 (67.2%) survived, 18 (32.7%) died, and 6 (10.9%) were discharged at their own request. Influenza A subtypes identified included H1N1 (15.7%) and H3N2 (23.6%), with 60.5% remaining untyped. Antiviral drug administration did not significantly correlate with hospital mortality. However, initiating antiviral treatment within the first 48 hours did influence mortality outcomes. Patient age, influenza virus type, and subtype showed no significant relationship with hospital mortality.
Conclusion: The study highlights concerning clinical outcomes and hospital mortality rates among patients diagnosed with seasonal influenza. Given the preventable nature of influenza and the challenges in managing these patients, there is an urgent need to enhance physician awareness, particularly among specialists. Emphasizing timely diagnostic and therapeutic interventions is critical, especially during peak influenza seasons.