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This paper, using Government and Binding Theory, deals with resumptive pronouns in Persian. It is concluded that the resumptive pronouns in genetive structures are obligatory. Such pronouns can be absent in genetive position of topicalized structures in the old and literary Persian. They are obligatory in prepositional structures too. The presence of prepositon before the head of relative clauses is possible, if in the of both relative and matrix clause verbs there exist -roles needing a joint preposition by which they are represented. Otherwise, the preposition must be stranded in the relative clause with a resumptive pronoun in the complement position. Resumptive pronouns are optional in the object position of relative clauses but banned in topicalized structures. A trace is prefered in the unmarked subject position of relative clauses but resumptive pronoun occurs when this position is focused and shows a sort of uniqueness. Relative element in Persian relative clauses is a non-overt operator coindexed with resumptive pronouns or traces. Persian language is sensitive to complex noun phrase consraint, and accordingly, in cases where a resumptive pronoun inside a complex noun phrase is coindexed with a non-overt operator out of that complex noun phrase and yet the structure is grammatical, it is concluded that no movement happens. So Persian resumptive pronouns are base-generated. Non-clitic pronouns can not be resumptive in topicalized structures.  

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One of the major issues that can be raised in the processing, understanding, producing, applying and training the idiomatic expressions is to describe the internal features and determine the relationship and correlation between these features in idiomatic expressions. The present study is aimed to investigate the characteristics of the internal features of 50 Persian idiomatic expressions and describes them and determines the correlation between them. The intuition of the speakers on variables of familiarity, ambiguity, semantic transparency, figurativeness, arousal, concreteness, emotional valence, and confidence of each phrase was evaluated. Their descriptions were also assessed for the figurative meaning of each phrase. The results showed that the studied Persian idiomatic expressions have the characteristics mentioned and can be categorized using a continuum whose pole is one of the internal features of the idiomatic expressions and the other is opposite of the same internal feature. Furthermore, descriptive statistics showed that the expressions of the Persian language are assessed more as ambiguous, arousal, transparent, figurative, and concrete with negative emotional valence. Moreover, the results showed that there is a negative correlation between the familiarity and semantic transparency. There is a positive correlation between meaningfulness and semantic transparency. There is also a negative correlation between knowledge with semantic transparency and confidence..
           
One of the most important issues in the processing, perception, production, use, and teaching of idiomatic expressions is describing their internal features and determining the correlation between these features. The present study aimed at describing the following internal features of Persian idiomatic expressions: familiarity, knowledge, ambiguity, semantic transparency, figurativeness, emotional arousal, concreteness, emotional valence, and confidence.  Furthermore, an attempt was made to investigate the correlation between these features and answer the following questions: A) Which of these features can be found in Persian idiomatic expressions? B) What is the relationship between the internal features of Persian idiomatic expressions? C) How Persian idiomatic expressions can be categorized based on these internal features? It is hypothesized that idiomatic expressions possess various and diverse internal features and both a negative and a positive correlation can be found between some of them. Furthermore, these idiomatic expressions can be categorized on a continuum with one of the internal features at one end and the opposite feature at the other end. To achieve the aims of the present research, at first, based on the intuitive and encyclopedic knowledge of the researchers, 50 Persian idiomatic expressions were chosen from “Dictionary of Metonymy” by “Mansour Servat (1379)” and “Sokhan's dictionary of metonymy” by “Hassan Anvari (1390). The intuitive knowledge of Persian native speakers for each idiomatic expression was evaluated in terms of familiarity, knowledge, ambiguity, semantic transparency, figurativeness, emotional arousal, concreteness, emotional valence, and confidence. Hence, for the experimental phase of the study, 270 high-school female students were selected using random sampling. Questionnaires were administered to collect the data of the study and for each variable, a questionnaire was developed. The questionnaires were filled in without the researcher’s intervention. Descriptive and inferential statistics were performed using SPSS. The importance of this research lies in filling the gap in the field of the internal features of Persian idiomatic expressions and determining their correlation. The results of the study revealed that Persian idiomatic expressions have these internal features and they can be categorized based on these features on a continuum with one feature at one end and the opposite feature at the other end. Furthermore, descriptive statistics revealed that the idiomatic expressions investigated in this study were more ambiguous, emotionally arousing, figurative, concrete and emotionally negative. Furthermore, a negative correlation was identified between the internal features of familiarity and semantic transparency. However, a positive correlation was observed between concreteness and semantic transparency. Finally, a negative correlation was observed among knowledge, sematic transparency, and confidence

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The present study attempts to carry out a contrastive analysis -within the framework of anthropological linguistics- on idioms formed in relation with common concepts in Spanish and Persian, based on how natives speakers of these languages deal with the objects around them. In this approach, the possible similarities and differences between linguistic components are analyzed according to the native speakers' cultural and sociological issues. This approach, more than anything else, is indebted to the theory of linguistic relativity, a theory based on the influence of language on thought and, in particular, on the individual's attitudes towards objects, and how his/her language treats objects around him/her. The main question of the present research is what impacts do objects and artifacts have on the creation of possible similarities and differences in idiom formulation, in native Spanish and Persian speakers' culture. Since idioms are an inseparable part of folklore and popular knowledge, and perhaps the most culture-bound part of language, the authors try to assess the effects of cultural interaction with objects around Spanish and Persian native speakers on their idiom formulation referring to common concepts, through the contrastive analysis of object-containing idioms in Spanish and Persian, in order to present a model for an inter-linguistic analysis within an anthropolinguistic framework. The main objective of this research is the comparison of the idioms containing objects in Spanish and Persian in order to show how the attitude of the speakers of those languages towards objects, is reflected in the form and content of idioms under the influence of the context and cultural characteristics. Based on the analysis carried out in this study, in Spanish and Persian, idiomatization referring to a common concept according to the special interaction of these native speakers with the objects around them, tends more towards cultural differences than similarities, and the focus of idiomatization similarities has been based on objects and artifacts that are used in the household.

1.  Introduction

One of the central issues that the Antropolinguistic studies are seeking for is to consider the Language as a cultural function and event; and one of the subjects discussed in the Relative Linguistic Hypothesis is to confirm that people's thinking is influenced by how they interact with objects around them in terms of language. On the other hand, the mass culture has more influence in formulating the ‘idioms’ than in other linguistic elements. For example, since in the Catholicism the cross is a symbol and reminder of the Passion of the Christ; in Spanish the idiom (To be a cross: Ser una cruz) is used to express the concept of “something annoying”: »Tener que madrugar es una cruz para mí. «( Having to get up early is a cross for me.)  While in Persian to express this same concept, the idiom (عذاب الیم بودن: To be a painful punishment(  is used under the influence of The Quran in the idiomatization:«برای من زود بیدار شدن از خواب عذاب الیم است.»  (Having to get up early is a painful punishment for me.) Now the question is what are the results of comparing the idioms containing objects in Spanish and Persian? And the hypothesis of this article is that due to the cultural differences between Iranians and Spaniards, which can potentially lead to differences in the way they encounter objects around them, in relation with the idiomatization from a common concept, rather than seeing similarities, we will see differences in these two languages.
Question: w
 

2.  Literature Review

2.1) In 1995, Monroy Casas y Hernández Campo published an article called “A Sociolinguistic Approach to the Study of Idioms: Some Anthropolinguistic Sketch”. In this article, they defined the idiom as a sequence of words functioning as a single unit whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meaning of the parts. In the repertoire of any language idiomatic expressions constitute a special category of lexical items presenting a fixed structure and a specific behavior in language use. And they discussed a small sample of Spanish and English idioms (proverbs, and sayings in particular) within an anthropolinguistic framework in an attempt to foreground not just differences but some curious coincidences between the two cultures in their apprehension of reality.
2.2) In 2012, Rita Marinelli and Laura Cignoni published an article called “In the same boat and other idiomatic seafaring expressions”. In this article, they reported that a total of 200 Italian expressions were first selected and examined, using both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, as well as specific lexicographical works dealing with the subject of idiomaticity, especially of the maritime type, and a similar undertaking was then conducted for the English expressions. They discussed the possibility of including both the Italian and English idiomatic expressions in the semantic database Mari Term, which contains terms belonging to the maritime domain. They described the terminological database and the way in which the idiomatic expressions can be organized within the system, so that they are connected to other concepts represented in the database, but at the same time continue to belong to a group of particular linguistic expressions. Furthermore, they studied similarities and differences in meaning and usage of some idiomatic expressions in the two languages.
2.3) In 2014, Teilanyo published an article called “A Comparative Study of Selected Idioms in Nembe (Nigeria) and English”.He, based on assumptions and criticisms of the Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis with its derivatives of cultural determinism and cultural relativity, studied certain English idioms that had parallels in Nembe (an Ijoid language in Nigeria’s Niger Delta). He concluded that while the codes (vehicles) of expression are different, the same propositions and thought patterns run through the speakers of these different languages. However, each linguistic community adopts the concepts and nuances in its environment. Therefore, the concept of linguistic universals and cultural relativity complement each other and provide a forum for efficient communication across linguistic, cultural and racial boundaries.
 

3.  Methodology

In order to examine the hypothesis, f
 

4.  Conclusion

In the 34 Persian equivalents of the 50 revised Spanish idioms, the area chosen for idiomatization is different and in the 26 Persian equivalents of those the area chosen for idiomatization is similar. Thus, it can be concluded that in Spanish and Persian, idiomatization referring to a common concept according to the special interaction of these native speakers with the objects around them, tends more towards cultural differences than similarities, and the focus of idiomatization similarities has been based on objects and artifacts that are used in the household.

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Cultural conceptualizations show the ways of thinking and world view of a linguistic community toward the phenomena. The study of the conceptualizations leads to the profound understanding of the relevant cultures, facilitate cross cultural interactions, and remove cultural misunderstandings. This research, using the descriptive – analytical method, tries to study cultural conceptualizations in Zazomahroo Bakhtiari Dialect and describe their cultural origins. Regarding to nomadic and rural lifestyle of the people living in the region and their direct contact to the nature, the natural elements and phenomena provide a basis for cultural conceptualizations. Statistical population is 500 of the death-related phrases, expression, lamentations and proverbs which are used in this dialect. Data have been collected by field study and through interview and inquiry. The results of the studying and analysing of the data show that the origins of the cultural conceptualizations lie in the nomadic and rural lifestyle, people’s beliefs and ideas, the physiological effects of death-related feelings and emotions on body organs and people’s imaginations toward death. This lifestyle leads to the direct contact to the nature; therefore, the violent aspects of the nature phenomena are used as a concrete domain in conceptualizing of abstract concept of “death”. Death cultural conceptualizations such as “north wind, flood, avalanche, thunder and lightning” or “extinguishing of the fire, falling of one’s gravel or collapsing of the tent column” are due to the inspiration of the natural phenomena and rural-nomadic lifestyle. 

1. Introduction
 
Cultural linguistics studies the relationship between the language and culture and their interactions on each other; Language is the subcategory of the culture that reflect the different features of the culture. Cultural conceptualizations are linguistic tools that reflect the abstract concepts of language, by using the cultural elements of the society such as religious traditions, beliefs, lifestyle, and imaginations of speakers. Cultural elements of various societies are different; therefore, the study of the conceptualizations creates opportunities for speakers to understand culture-specific differences and to better realize the different cultures. On the other hand, culture is the invisible heritage of each society and the study of cultural conceptualizations helps the culture to be protected. 
Bakhtiari Dialect is one of the dialects of Persian that is spoken in the center and south west of Iran and this dialect has different variants. One of these variants is spoken in Zazomahro region which is located in the south east of Lorestan Province. This is a mountainous region and people have a rural and nomadic lifestyle. This lifestyle provides the use of nature in producing conceptualizations. In this study, some examples of culture-specific conceptualizations have been studied that show the effect of  lifestyle and the continuous contact with nature and the effect of the natural elements on human are important factors in reflecting the conceptualizations in language and instantiate the human experiences in language. Therefore, the role of natural elements can be studied in conceptualization of “death” and the relevant of rural and nomadic lifestyle can be determined in cultural conceptualizations. In this research we are trying to find the answer to this question: “how are the conceptualizations of death realized and instantiated in Bakhtiari Dialect”.  We can say that because the lifestyle can have effect on language, the conceptualization of death can be instantiated by using the natural elements which have a great role in rural and nomadic lifestyle.
 
2. Literature Review
Theoretical framework of this research is cultural linguistics. Cultural linguistics has two kinds of framework: theoretical and analytical. The foundation of theoretical framework is cultural cognition and the foundation of analytical framework is “cultural categories, cultural schema and cultural metaphors”. Cultural linguistics uses these tools to show the relationship between language and cultural conceptualizations. Human beings represent their experiments through these conceptualizations and they are different among different cultures.
The present research is analysed through the cultural schema. Cultural schema are conceptual framework which are shared between cultural groups heterogeneously ( Sharifian, 2011,p24).  Cultural schemas (and subschemas) capture beliefs, norms, rules, and expectations of behaviour as well as values relating to various aspects and components of experience (sharifian, 2017). Cultural schemas that provide a ground for pragmatic meaning are called cultural pragmatic schema which reflect specific speech acts in different situations. Sharifian (2017) represents a pragmatic set for cultural pragmatic schema including cultural pragmatic schema, speech act/event, pragmeme and pract. They have a hierarchy relationship. Therefore, the correct interpretation of practs needs the knowledge of underlying pragmatic schema, speech acts/ events and pragmemes. Sharifian (2017) represents the following example for pragmeme- pract set:
Pragmeme: [Greeting ti a new employee]
Pract: [ nice to have you with us]
It should be said that cultural pragmatic schema produce speech acts and speech acts produce special pragmemes which are realized as different practs.
 
 
3. methodology
This research has been done on the basis of the analytical-descriptive method. The statistical population is the expression, idioms, proverbs and the elegies that are used in this dialect. Data were collected by field study, using interviewing, and attending among people and taking part in different ceremonies. 17 people between 45 and 70 were interviewed, 10 men and 7 women. Different linguistic research methods were used including conceptual-associative analysis, corpus approach, and conceptual text/visual analysis. Data were divided into two general categories, data related to natural elements and data related to human body. Next, these data divided to subcategories. Then, the data that were related to the conceptualizations of death were analysed and interpreted.
 
4. Results
The findings of the present research show that the rural-nomadic lifestyle, environmental conditions, beliefs, ideas, imaginations and conceptions of people have a role in producing cultural conceptualizations. Due to the role of the nature in the life of the people in this region and their continuous contact with the nature, many of the conceptualizations relevant to the death are inspired by the natural phenomena. Among the natural phenomena, those which have destructive, threatening and dreadful power, have a stronger role in cultural conceptualization. Lightning, flood, wind, storm, snow-slide and fire that have destructive and dreadful effect, are used in cultural conceptualizations in this region. People of this region use these dreadful natural phenomena as a concrete domain to represent the concept of death as an abstract domain and the cultural conceptualizations of death can be represented as “death is the north wind, death is the flood, death is a snow-slide, death is a lightning” or “death is the putting out the fire, death is the falling of the gravel, and death is the collapsing of the column of the black tent”.  People’s beliefs on nature and its phenomena also have a role in producing the cultural conceptualizations. For example, they conceptualize the death as “melting the star of a person” because they believe that every person has a star in the sky, when a person dies, their star becomes melted and disappears.  The rural and nomadic lifestyle has also a role in producing cultural conceptualization. For example, the conceptualizing “death as going” has a root in the style of their life as nomadic people are travelling all the time to find a good place for feeding their animals. Another conceptualization of the death is “giving one’s life to the other person”. This conceptualization has a root in their religious beliefs, saying that the death is not the end of the life but is changing from one form to the other. Altogether, the lifestyle, nature and its phenomena, people’s beliefs toward the death form a conceptual basis for producing cultural conceptualization of the death in Zazomahroo Region.

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Aspect is one of the most important structural and semantic features of the verbs. the ‘durative phrase’ and its effect on the aspectual interpretation of different verbs is amongst important issues in surveying lexical aspect too. In order to determine the effect of durative phrase on the aspectual interpretation of sentences which include achievement and accomplishment, the present research aims to analyze aspectual interpretation of telic predicates (achievement and accomplishment) in the presence of the durative phrase in Persian. The results of the analysis based on MacDonald’s (2008) approach and within the Minimalist Program framework showed that appending durative phrase to reversible achievements and cyclic achievements leads to end-time interpretation while its presence in overthrowing irreversible achievement leads to atelic single event interpretation. The analyzing of accomplishment predicates showed that, like achievement predicates, the effect of the presence of durative phrase not only depends on the quantitative and non-quantitative feature of the object but also it depends on the nature in terms of reversibility or irreversibility.

1. Introduction
In different languages of the world, aspect is one of the most important structural and semantic features of the verb which encodes in different ways. In domain studies of aspects, linguists distinguish between grammatical and lexical aspects. The lexical aspect which is the intrinsic and semantic feature of the verb refers to the time structure of the event but the grammatical aspect appears in the surface sentence and shows the viewpoint of the speaker toward the sentence time structure. According to lexical aspect, verbs are divided into four groups. State and activity predicate which are telic and achievement and accomplishment predicate which are atelic. “Durative phrase” and its effect on aspectual interpretation is one of the topics which are mentioned in surveying the verb aspectual interpretations. The main goal of the current research is surveying the aspectual interpretation of achievement and accomplishment which are telic predicates in the presence of a durative phrase and what is the effect of adding a durative phrase on the sentence which contains achievement and accomplishment predicates. Surveying this topic will be done according to Mac Donald’s approach (2008) which has been mentioned in the Minimalist Program General Framework.

1.2 Research Questions and Hypotheses
The main question that this research tries to answer is what is the effect of adding a durative phrase on the achievement and accomplishment predicates? The primary hypothesis is the durative phrase is compatible with both achievement and accomplishment telic predicates.

2. Literature Review
Non–Iranian researchers like Alsina (1999), Ramchand (2003), borer (2005), Thompson (2006) and MacDonald (2008) have presented different syntactic and semantic analyses of lexical aspects. Mainly Iranian researchers have classified verbs based on their event and aspectual structure in Persian.  According to reviewed research, research about aspectual interpretation of achievement and accomplishment predicates in the presence of durative phrases hasn’t been surveyed in Persian yet.
 
3. Methodology
The methodology of this research is analytic-descriptive. For this purpose, in this research, we scrutinized the effect of durative phrases in Persian sentences that contain achievement and accomplishment predicates in the Minimalist Approach Framework.

4. Results
The result of this research shows that appending durative phrase to reversible achievements and cyclic achievements leads to end-time interpretation while its presence in overthrowing irreversible achievement leads to atelic single event interpretation. However, destructive irreversible achievements and some overthrowing irreversible achievements that have momentary nature aren’t compatible with durative phrases. The analysis of accomplishment predicates shows that, like achievement predicates, the effect of the presence of a durative phrase not only depends on the quantitative and non-quantitative features of the object, but also depends on the nature in terms of reversibility or irreversibility.  Against Mac Donald’s overgeneralization, there are some exceptions and violation cases about the aspectual interpretation of accomplishment predicates in the Persian language.  Finally, according to the impact of internal arguments and the nature of predicates, the presence of a durative phrase is effective on the aspectual interpretation of achievement and accomplishment predicates.