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LRR 2025, 16(4): 37-82 |
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Bahrami F. Explanation of Polysemy in “-ak Suffix” Derivations: A Cognitive-Typological Approach. LRR 2025; 16 (4) :37-82
URL: http://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article-14-69944-en.html
URL: http://lrr.modares.ac.ir/article-14-69944-en.html
Assistant Professor, Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran , f_bahrami@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract: (2170 Views)
The derivational suffix “-ak” is one of the productive affixes in Persian, attached to different bases to create a variety of meanings. Historical evidence confirms that despite the diversity of meanings, all derivations originate from the same affix, exhibiting a high potential for polysemy. This article, following a cognitive-typological approach, aims to investigate the polysemous behavior of the aforementioned suffix while introducing the (sub)schemas of derivations within the framework of Construction Morphology. It also examines the processes of metaphor and metonymy as two bases involved in semantic extension. Furthermore, by considering the findings of the initial part alongside typological considerations, it explores the relationship between the cognitive processes involved in polysemy and the typological motivations that follow, namely, economy and iconicity. Additionally, it investigates how typological explanations, particularly the concept of semantic maps, are not only valid for cognitive linguists but can also address more specific issues, such as explaining the existence of polysemy within a single derivation. This study also confirms the Semantic Map Connectivity Hypothesis through derivations that simultaneously imply multiple meanings or have undergone changes in meaning over time.
1. Introduction
The suffix “-ak” is added to nominal, verbal, adjectival, and adverbial bases and creates nouns with various meanings of diminution, endearment, pejoration, instrument, and others. The acceptance of diverse hosts and the range of applications of such derivatives suggest that we are dealing with homonymous suffixes “-ak”. However, historical evidence confirms that all derivatives originate from a single suffix. Considering this issue, achieving the primary central meaning and outlining a pattern that can reflect this extensive semantic network are the considerations at hand. The author aims to explore the polysemy phenomenon of the mentioned suffix by adopting Construction Morphology framework. By introducing the (sub)schemas of the derivatives, the study will examine metaphor and metonymy processes as key strategies involved in this semantic expansion. Additionally, it will elucidate the relationship between the cognitive processes driving polysemy and the typological motivations underpinning them, namely economy and iconicity. The investigation also reveals that the typological explanation, particularly the concept of Semantic Map, not only aligns with the views of cognitivists but also explains the polysemous behavior in each derivation.
2. Literature Review
Grammarians have identified various meanings for the suffix "--ak," which continues the same historical functions. These meanings include expressing diminution, endearment, pejoration, reduction and gradualness, similarity, relativity, instrument, place, and more (cf. Keshani, 1993, pp. 24-26; Anvari and Givi, 1999, pp. 296-297; Khanlari, 1998, p. 165; Farshidvard, 2007, pp. 347-373). However, none have considered the semantic relationships among the derivatives, limiting themselves to a non-comprehensive categorization. They fail to refer to certain functions, and sometimes, derivations categorized under different classes actually belong to the same category.
The polysemy of Persian constructions has been investigated within the framework of Construction Morphology. Among others, Abbasi (2017) examined complex constructions in two frameworks of Lexical Morphology and Construction Morphology. Additionally, Azim Dokht et al. (2018) explored the semantic variations of compound words ending in the present stem of “jâb”, and Rafiei and Rezai (2019) studied the schemas of “-gar” derivatives. Bamshadi (2019), in his dissertation, addresses the processes of derivation and compounding in Persian. He has also produced other works adapted from his dissertation within the Construction Morphology framework. Bahrami Khorshid and Namdari (2019), Bahrami Khorshid and Ghandi (2020), and Bahrami Khorshid and Yazdani Moghadam (2021) have also investigated prefixed verbs, “-er” derivatives, and verbal derivational compounds using the same approach. However, the polysemy of the suffix “-ak” has not been examined from a linguistic perspective, and none of the existing studies have analyzed complex constructions applying a mixed cognitive-typological approach.
3. Methodology
The derivatives of “-ak” have been extracted from the dictionaries of Dehkhoda (1980), Moin (1973), and Zansou (Keshani, 1993). Out of a total of 278 cases, obsolete words were ommited with the stipulation that no schema was removed. Through an internet search, additional hapaxes were identified and included in the list, resulting in a total of 185 derivations with the following frequencies.
Table 1.
semantic variation and the frequency of “-ak” suffix derivations
In instances where the derivation denotes multiple meanings simultaneously, one of these meanings may stem from the base word itself and not the affixation. For example, in “qarbilak” (wheel + diminutive affix -ak) and “šalvârak” (pants + diminutive affix -ak = shorts), the instrumental meaning originates from the base words. Therefore, only the diminutive meaning should be considered for the derivation. However, 18 derived words possess dual meanings. For instance, “nâxonak” refers both to an eye illness and to the act of handling food. These meanings are entirely independent of each other and both of them are considered. As a result, the total number of items listed in Table (1) reaches 209.
Explaining the diversity of meanings requires considering not only the semantic commonalities of the derivations (as output) but also the semantic commonalities of the basic elements (as input). To achieve this objective, the present discussion is divided into two parts. The first section addresses the identification and introduction of the (sub)schemas of “-ak” derivations, focusing on the hierarchical relationships among them. Additionally, the metaphoric and metonymic relationships inherent in each (sub)schema, which serve as the foundation for semantic expansion, will be examined. The second section will introduce the conceptual space of the “-ak” derivations, paying careful attention to all meanings derived from the mother schema and its sub-schemas, while also evaluating the continuity of the semantic map.
4. Results
The common aspect of the two concepts “resemblance” and “diminutive”, as the main functions of the diminutive affix in Indo-Iranian languages, is the expression of a “relation” between the base and the derived word. This indicates a degree of identity/proximity. Therefore, the primary schema in the highest level is as follows:
<[[X]Ni,Adji,Advi –ak]Nj,Adjj,Advj [entity/property with identity/proximity relation to Xi]j]>
Its primary heirs are the sub-schemas that differentiate this general relation into two aspects: “diminutive” and “similarity”, both of which are rooted in physical similarity.
<[[X]Ni,Adji,Advi –ak]Nj,Adjj,Advj [relation R to the SEMi based on diminution]j]>
<[[X]Ni,Adji,Advi –ak]Nj,Adjj,Advj [relation R to the SEMi based on similarity]j]>
Figure 1.
The First Level of Polysemy Network in –ak Suffix Derivations
The diminutive relationship is based on overall appearance similarity, except for size. Consequently, the maximum similarity and the most iconic relationship between the base and the derivation is established. According to Table (1), the diminutive sub-schema is the most active in Persian. If the relationship of diminution expands from the objective domain (based on sensation) to the abstract domain (based on perception), encompassing both positive and negative perceptual-psychological diminution, it forms the basis for schematization of the meanings of “endearment” and “pejoration”. The underlying conceptual metaphors are “Delicate/gentle/lovely/pitiful, is small” and “Little/humble, is small” (cf. Jurafsky, 1996). Therefore, the main/neutral subschema is based on similarity, while the other two are based on conceptual metaphors. Additionally, our cognitive experiences establish a direct relationship between the concepts of diminution/smallness and diminution/graduation on one hand, and greatness and multiplicity/perfection on the other. What is achieved slowly and gradually is perceived as less and smaller; conversely, what is achieved entirely and completely is perceived as greater. This implies that a part of something is smaller or less than the whole.The conceptual metaphors “Big is complete” and “Small is incomplete” form the basis for acquiring this meaning. Moreover, the diminutive can be understood as indicating fewness. This implies a graduation in quantity, time, quality, and similar aspects. Thus, the meaning of gradual reduction can be inferred by adding “-ak” to the base. Hence, adjectives and adverbs related to quantitative and qualitative concepts can enhance the meaning of gradual reduction by “-ak” suffixation, thereby decreasing the intensity of the characteristic associated with the base word. Therefore, the subschemas of diminution are as follows:
Figure 2.
Polysemy Network of –ak Derivations in Diminution Subscheme
The similarity subschemas can also be categorized into seven types: phenomenon name, disease name, tool name, food name, place name, event name, and relative number. The formation basis of each of the proposed subschemas was analyzed through the lens of metaphor and metonymy.
Figure 3.
Polysemy Network of –ak Derivations in Similarity Subscheme
By summarizing the aforementioned contents, the semantic map of the “-ak” derivations is proposed as follows. In this semantic map, two conceptual subfields, “similarity” and “proximity”, are embedded, both of which can be summarized under the main title of “relation” within the macro conceptual space. It should be noted that in the proposed semantic map, it is not possible to determine the boundary between the two mentioned categories in an absolute and definitive way, as the low level of similarity enters the domain of proximity.
Figure 4.
Semantic Map of –ak Derivations in Persian
The absence of a decisive demarcation will result in two direct consequences. Firstly, it permits derivations to correspond to multiple meanings (structural schemas) simultaneously. Secondly, derivations may gradually move to the adjacent schema, thereby undergoing a semantic shift and potentially becoming fixed in the secondary meaning. From a typological perspective, the phenomenon of polysemy satisfies both the motivations of economy and iconicity, and in fact, strengthens the tendency towards semantic expansion. Furthermore, by reducing the motivation of iconicity, the metaphorical processes involved in semantic expansion (upper right zone of the semantic map) tend to be replaced by metonymic processes (lower right and left zone of the semantic map).
1. Introduction
The suffix “-ak” is added to nominal, verbal, adjectival, and adverbial bases and creates nouns with various meanings of diminution, endearment, pejoration, instrument, and others. The acceptance of diverse hosts and the range of applications of such derivatives suggest that we are dealing with homonymous suffixes “-ak”. However, historical evidence confirms that all derivatives originate from a single suffix. Considering this issue, achieving the primary central meaning and outlining a pattern that can reflect this extensive semantic network are the considerations at hand. The author aims to explore the polysemy phenomenon of the mentioned suffix by adopting Construction Morphology framework. By introducing the (sub)schemas of the derivatives, the study will examine metaphor and metonymy processes as key strategies involved in this semantic expansion. Additionally, it will elucidate the relationship between the cognitive processes driving polysemy and the typological motivations underpinning them, namely economy and iconicity. The investigation also reveals that the typological explanation, particularly the concept of Semantic Map, not only aligns with the views of cognitivists but also explains the polysemous behavior in each derivation.
2. Literature Review
Grammarians have identified various meanings for the suffix "--ak," which continues the same historical functions. These meanings include expressing diminution, endearment, pejoration, reduction and gradualness, similarity, relativity, instrument, place, and more (cf. Keshani, 1993, pp. 24-26; Anvari and Givi, 1999, pp. 296-297; Khanlari, 1998, p. 165; Farshidvard, 2007, pp. 347-373). However, none have considered the semantic relationships among the derivatives, limiting themselves to a non-comprehensive categorization. They fail to refer to certain functions, and sometimes, derivations categorized under different classes actually belong to the same category.
The polysemy of Persian constructions has been investigated within the framework of Construction Morphology. Among others, Abbasi (2017) examined complex constructions in two frameworks of Lexical Morphology and Construction Morphology. Additionally, Azim Dokht et al. (2018) explored the semantic variations of compound words ending in the present stem of “jâb”, and Rafiei and Rezai (2019) studied the schemas of “-gar” derivatives. Bamshadi (2019), in his dissertation, addresses the processes of derivation and compounding in Persian. He has also produced other works adapted from his dissertation within the Construction Morphology framework. Bahrami Khorshid and Namdari (2019), Bahrami Khorshid and Ghandi (2020), and Bahrami Khorshid and Yazdani Moghadam (2021) have also investigated prefixed verbs, “-er” derivatives, and verbal derivational compounds using the same approach. However, the polysemy of the suffix “-ak” has not been examined from a linguistic perspective, and none of the existing studies have analyzed complex constructions applying a mixed cognitive-typological approach.
3. Methodology
The derivatives of “-ak” have been extracted from the dictionaries of Dehkhoda (1980), Moin (1973), and Zansou (Keshani, 1993). Out of a total of 278 cases, obsolete words were ommited with the stipulation that no schema was removed. Through an internet search, additional hapaxes were identified and included in the list, resulting in a total of 185 derivations with the following frequencies.
Table 1.
semantic variation and the frequency of “-ak” suffix derivations
| meaning of derivation | number |
| diminution, endearment, pejoration | 62 |
| instrument/object name | 48 |
| plant name | 18 |
| place name | 16 |
| food name | 15 |
| animal name | 12 |
| body-part name | 10 |
| eventive noun | 10 |
| illness name | 9 |
| reduction, graduality, similarity | 3 |
| Phenomenon name | 2 |
| relative number | 2 |
| Total= 209 | |
In instances where the derivation denotes multiple meanings simultaneously, one of these meanings may stem from the base word itself and not the affixation. For example, in “qarbilak” (wheel + diminutive affix -ak) and “šalvârak” (pants + diminutive affix -ak = shorts), the instrumental meaning originates from the base words. Therefore, only the diminutive meaning should be considered for the derivation. However, 18 derived words possess dual meanings. For instance, “nâxonak” refers both to an eye illness and to the act of handling food. These meanings are entirely independent of each other and both of them are considered. As a result, the total number of items listed in Table (1) reaches 209.
Explaining the diversity of meanings requires considering not only the semantic commonalities of the derivations (as output) but also the semantic commonalities of the basic elements (as input). To achieve this objective, the present discussion is divided into two parts. The first section addresses the identification and introduction of the (sub)schemas of “-ak” derivations, focusing on the hierarchical relationships among them. Additionally, the metaphoric and metonymic relationships inherent in each (sub)schema, which serve as the foundation for semantic expansion, will be examined. The second section will introduce the conceptual space of the “-ak” derivations, paying careful attention to all meanings derived from the mother schema and its sub-schemas, while also evaluating the continuity of the semantic map.
4. Results
The common aspect of the two concepts “resemblance” and “diminutive”, as the main functions of the diminutive affix in Indo-Iranian languages, is the expression of a “relation” between the base and the derived word. This indicates a degree of identity/proximity. Therefore, the primary schema in the highest level is as follows:
Its primary heirs are the sub-schemas that differentiate this general relation into two aspects: “diminutive” and “similarity”, both of which are rooted in physical similarity.
Figure 1.
The First Level of Polysemy Network in –ak Suffix Derivations
The diminutive relationship is based on overall appearance similarity, except for size. Consequently, the maximum similarity and the most iconic relationship between the base and the derivation is established. According to Table (1), the diminutive sub-schema is the most active in Persian. If the relationship of diminution expands from the objective domain (based on sensation) to the abstract domain (based on perception), encompassing both positive and negative perceptual-psychological diminution, it forms the basis for schematization of the meanings of “endearment” and “pejoration”. The underlying conceptual metaphors are “Delicate/gentle/lovely/pitiful, is small” and “Little/humble, is small” (cf. Jurafsky, 1996). Therefore, the main/neutral subschema is based on similarity, while the other two are based on conceptual metaphors. Additionally, our cognitive experiences establish a direct relationship between the concepts of diminution/smallness and diminution/graduation on one hand, and greatness and multiplicity/perfection on the other. What is achieved slowly and gradually is perceived as less and smaller; conversely, what is achieved entirely and completely is perceived as greater. This implies that a part of something is smaller or less than the whole.The conceptual metaphors “Big is complete” and “Small is incomplete” form the basis for acquiring this meaning. Moreover, the diminutive can be understood as indicating fewness. This implies a graduation in quantity, time, quality, and similar aspects. Thus, the meaning of gradual reduction can be inferred by adding “-ak” to the base. Hence, adjectives and adverbs related to quantitative and qualitative concepts can enhance the meaning of gradual reduction by “-ak” suffixation, thereby decreasing the intensity of the characteristic associated with the base word. Therefore, the subschemas of diminution are as follows:
Figure 2.
Polysemy Network of –ak Derivations in Diminution Subscheme
The similarity subschemas can also be categorized into seven types: phenomenon name, disease name, tool name, food name, place name, event name, and relative number. The formation basis of each of the proposed subschemas was analyzed through the lens of metaphor and metonymy.
Figure 3.
Polysemy Network of –ak Derivations in Similarity Subscheme
By summarizing the aforementioned contents, the semantic map of the “-ak” derivations is proposed as follows. In this semantic map, two conceptual subfields, “similarity” and “proximity”, are embedded, both of which can be summarized under the main title of “relation” within the macro conceptual space. It should be noted that in the proposed semantic map, it is not possible to determine the boundary between the two mentioned categories in an absolute and definitive way, as the low level of similarity enters the domain of proximity.
Figure 4.
Semantic Map of –ak Derivations in Persian
The absence of a decisive demarcation will result in two direct consequences. Firstly, it permits derivations to correspond to multiple meanings (structural schemas) simultaneously. Secondly, derivations may gradually move to the adjacent schema, thereby undergoing a semantic shift and potentially becoming fixed in the secondary meaning. From a typological perspective, the phenomenon of polysemy satisfies both the motivations of economy and iconicity, and in fact, strengthens the tendency towards semantic expansion. Furthermore, by reducing the motivation of iconicity, the metaphorical processes involved in semantic expansion (upper right zone of the semantic map) tend to be replaced by metonymic processes (lower right and left zone of the semantic map).
Keywords: “-ak” suffix, construction morphology, metaphor, metonymy, economy, iconicity, semantic map.
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